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PROFESSIONAL ORIENTED FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Methodological recommendations for practical use, for students of specialty 5В073100 – Life safety and environmental protection
Almaty 2018
ALMATY UNIVERSITY OF POWER
ENGINEERING AND TELECOMMUNICATION
Department for language studies
Некоммерческое акционерное общество
Кафедра языковых знаний
PROFESSIONAL ORIENTED FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Methodological Recommendations for practical use, for students of specialty 5В073100 – Life safety and environmental protection
Алматы 2018
АЛМАТИНСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ЭНЕРГЕТИКИ И СВЯЗИ
Author: Luara Sergeyeva. Methodological recommendations for practical use, for students of specialty 5В073100 – Life safety and environmental protection. – Almaty. AUPET, 2018 - 49 p.
This guideline is developed for using in practical classes for third-year students. After studying this material, students will master the lexical minimum and improve reading skills with texts in the format of international exams TOEFL and IELTS.
Reviewer: candidate of Philology, assistant professor V. Kozlov
Published according to the plan of publication of the non-profit joint-stock company "Almaty university of power engineering and telecommunications" for 2018.
© Non-profit JSK «Almaty university of power engineering and telecommunications», 2018
Summary plan 2018. pos.71
Luara Sergeyeva
PROFESSIONAL ORIENTED FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Methodological Recommendations for practical use, for students of specialty 5В073100 – Life safety and environmental protection
Editor V. Kozlov
Standardization Specialist N. Moldabekova
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Некоммерческое акционерное общество
АЛМАТИНСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ЭНЕРГЕТИКИ И СВЯЗИ Кафедра Языковых знаний
УТВЕРЖДАЮ
Проректор по академической деятельности ___________________ С.В. Коньшин
«______»________________2018 г.
PROFESSIONAL ORIENTED FOREIGN LANGUAGE
Methodological Recommendations for practical use, for students of specialty 5В073100 – Life safety and Environmental protection
СОГЛАСОВАНО Начальник УМО
______Р.Р.Мухамеджанова
«____»_______2018 г.
Рассмотрено и одобрено на заседании кафедры____________
протокол № 5 от. .01.2018 г.
Зав.кафедрой _________________
Редактор
_______ Л.Т. Сластихина
«_____»__________2018 г.
Согласовано
Зав. кафедрой ЯЗ
___________________Тулеуп М.М.
«______»________________2018 г.
Председатель ОУМК по МО и Э _____________ Б.К. Курпенов
«_____» __________2018г.
Специалист по стандартизации ______________________
«_____»__________2018г.
Составитель (разработчики) Л.Д. Сергеева
Алматы 2018
Vocabulary Exercise 1
Replace the words and expressions in bold in sentences 1 – 15 with one of those from the box. You will not need all of the words and expressions from the box.
acid rain activists animal rights battery farming biodegradable packaging biodiversity biofuels breeding (in) captivity CFC gases climate change conservation conservation program conserve contaminated deforestation degradation desertification eco-friendly ecological ecology ecosystem emissions endangered species environmentalists environmentally friendly erosion extinct fossil fuels fumes genetically modified global warming green belt greenhouse effect greenhouse gases intensive farming natural behavior natural resources organic organic farming ozone-friendly ozone layer poaching pollute (air) pollution rare breeds
rainforest recycle recycling renewable / sustainable energy research solar power tidal energy toxic waste unleaded gas wildlife
management
1) In some countries, building is restricted or completely banned in the area of farmland or woods and parks which surround a community.
2) More and more companies are using boxes, cartons, and cans which can easily be decomposed by organisms such as bacteria, or by sunlight, sea, water, etc., for their products.
3) The burning of some fuels creates carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and methane which rise into the atmosphere.
4) Farmers have cleared acres of thick wooded land in tropical regions where the precipitation is very high to provide pasture for their cattle.
5) Planting trees and bushes can provide some protection from the gradual wearing away of soil.
6) We should all try to process waste material so that it can be used again.
7) Many shops now sell fruit and vegetables which are cultivated naturally, without using any chemical fertilizers or pesticides.
8) This bread is made from wheat which has been altered at a molecular level so as to change certain characteristics which can be inherited.
9) Most modern cars use fuel which has been made without lead additives.
10) Polluted precipitation which kills trees often falls a long distance from the source of the pollution.
11) Human activity has had a devastating effect on the living things, both large and small, in many parts of the word.
12) The gases and other substances which come from factories using oil, coal, and other fuels which are the remains of plants and animals can cause serious damage to the environment.
13) Don't drink that water. It's been made dirty by something being added to it.
14) Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, and other people concerned with protecting the environment are holding an international summit in Geneva next month.
15) The heating up of the earth's atmosphere by pollution is threatening life as we know it.
Exercise 2
Read this essay and complete the gaps with one of the words or expressions from the box in Exercise
“Environmental degradation is a major world problem. What causes this problem, and what can we do to prevent it?”
There is no doubt that the environment is in trouble. Factories burn (1) _____________ which produce (2) _____________ , and this kills trees. At the same time, (3) _____________ rise into the air and contribute to (4) _____________ which threatens to melt the polar ice cap. Meanwhile farmers clear huge areas of (5) _____________ in places such as the Amazon to produce feeding land for cattle or produce wood for building. Rivers and oceans are so heavily (6) _____________ by industrial waste that it is no longer safe to go swimming. Cars pump out poisonous (7) _____________which we all have to breathe in. (8) _____________ and overfishing are killing off millions of animals, including whales, elephants, and other (9) _____________ In fact, all around us, all living things large and small which comprise our finely balanced (10) _____________ are being systematically destroyed by human greed and thoughtlessness.
There is a lot we can all do, however, to help prevent this. The easiest thing, of course, is to (11) _____________ waste material such as paper and glass so that we can use it again. We should also check that the things we buy from supermarkets are packaged in (12) _____________ which decomposes easily. At the same time, we should make a conscious effort to avoid foods which are (13) _____________ (at least until someone proves that they are safe both for us and for the environment). If you are truly committed to protecting the environment, of course, you should only buy (14) _____________fruit and vegetables, safe in the knowledge that they have been naturally cultivated. Finally, of course, we should buy a small car that uses
(15) _____________ which is less harmful to the environment or, even better, make more use of public transportation.
The serious (16) _____________, however, do much more. They are aware of the global issues involved and will actively involve themselves in (17) _____________ by making sure our forests are kept safe for future generations. They will oppose activities which are harmful to animals, such as (18) _____________.
And they will campaign to keep the (19) _____________ around our towns and cities free from new building.
We cannot all be as committed as them, but we can at least do our own little bit at grass roots level. We, as humans, have inherited the earth, but that doesn't mean we can do whatever we like with it.
Exercise 3
Now discuss the problem. Use words and expressions from Exercise 1, and any other words or expressions that you think would be relevant.
Some people think that the government should spend as much money as possible on protecting the environment. Others think this money should be spent on other things such as education and healthcare. Which one of these opinions do you agree with? Use specific reasons and details to support your answer.
Text 1
Tracking Hurricanes
North American meteorologists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)'s Hurricane Research Division have recently improved the success rate in their forecasting of where hurricanes are likely to hit land by an estimated 15 to 30%. This increase in accuracy is due to the use of instruments called GPS-dropwindsondes, which can probe the atmosphere surrounding a hurricane while it is still out at sea. The atmospheric characteristics of hurricanes over land are well understood because investigation is possible with weather balloons containing sophisticated meteorological instruments. When hurricanes are out of reach of balloons, gathering information is decidedly more difficult. Little is known of the weather conditions that guide hurricanes towards land.
An accurate estimation of where a hurricane will strike is essential in order to reduce loss of life and property. Hurricane Andrew, the most costly hurricane in U.S.
history, killed 15 people and caused damage of $35 billion, in today's dollars, in 1992. However, the unnamed: Category 42 hurricane which struck southeast Florida in 1926 and killed 243 people would have caused an estimated $77 billion if it had struck today. The reason for this is the explosion in population growth and development along the south-east coast of the U.S. during the last half century.
Hurricanes occur in cycles every few decades, the last intense period in the U.S. being from 1940 to 1969. 'Camille', a Category 5 hurricane of such catastrophic force that it caused over a billion and a half dollars’ worth of damage at the time and killed 256 people, struck the coast of the Gulf of Mexico in 1969 with winds over 320 km/h. Yet, for the last quarter century, hurricane activity has been relatively mild.
Scientists do not know the precise reason for the cycles of hurricane activity, but they could be caused by a phenomenon called the 'Atlantic Conveyor'. This is the name given to the gigantic current of water that flows cold from the top of the globe slowly along the Atlantic Ocean floor to Antarctica and resurfaces decades later before flowing back north, absorbing heat as it crosses the equator. Since hurricanes derive their energy from the heat of warm water, it is thought that an increase in the speed of the' Conveyor', as it pulls warm water to the north, is an indicator of intensifying hurricane activity.
The use of GPS-dropwindsondes began in 1997. Small sensing devices dropped from planes at very high altitudes and over a wide area, they are far more
revealing than previously used sensors. Because they weigh only 0.4 kilograms, they are able to stay aloft for longer periods and broadcast more data to the ground. Each sonde carries its own global positioning satellite receiver. The GPS signals received are used to calculate the direction and speed of wind, and data on temperature, humidity, and barometric pressure at half second intervals all the way down to the ocean surface.
Dropwindsonde information is fed into a special meteorological computer in Maryland which generates a global computer model of wind patterns. Data analysts have discovered a greater variability in the winds at sea level than previously believed, but many forecasting problems are beyond a solution, at least for the time being. For instance, it is not yet known why hurricanes can suddenly change in intensity; current computer models often fail to predict whether a hurricane will reach land or else cannot pinpoint where a strike will take place.
One surprising result of a recent computer simulation was the destruction of a large part of downtown New York. Hurricane researchers believe that the city is more likely than Miami to suffer a direct hit in the near future. Also, certain geographical features of the coastline near New York make it conceivable that a wall of water called a storm surge pushed ashore by hurricane winds would cause a devastating flooding of Manhattan. A storm surge was responsible for the more than 8000 deaths caused by the hurricane that destroyed the city of Galveston in 1900.
1. The custom of naming hurricanes began in the early 1950s
2. Hurricanes are categorized according to their wind speed from Category 1 (least intense) to Category 5 (most intense).
1. Questions 1 – 4.You are advised to spend about 5 minutes on Questions 1-4.
Refer to Reading Passage "Tracking Hurricanes", and look at Questions 1 - 4 below.
Example: What do the letters NOAA stand for?
1) Which instruments have recently increased the success rate of U.S.
hurricane forecasts?
2) What reason is given for the lack of knowledge of hurricanes at sea?
3) Why was the hurricane which struck in 1926 not given a name?
4) What is the name of the strongest hurricane mentioned in the article?
2. Questions 5-11. You are advised to spend about 8 minutes on Questions 5- 11. Look at the table below. According to Reading Passage, to whom or what do the phrases on the right refer? Note that you must give your answer IN NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS.
Example: meteorologists have improved their forecasts for hurricanes.
5) ____ become stronger every few decades.
6) ____ energizes all hurricanes.
7) ____ is a huge current of water flowing from north to south.
8) ____ could not stay in the air for a long time.
9) ____ know more about surface winds than they knew before.
10) ____ recently predicted a catastrophe for the city of New York.
11) ____ is a huge wave of water blown on land by a hurricane.
3. Questions 12 -15.You are advised to spend about 7 minutes on Questions 12- 15. Refer to Reading Passage , and decide which of the answers best completes the following sentences. The first one has been done for you as an example.
Example: The main point of the passage is to give information about:
a) previous U.S. hurricanes;
b) future U.S. hurricanes;
c) forecasting hurricane activity;
d) why hurricanes change in intensity – correct answer.
12. The intensity of U.S. hurricanes:
a) has increased by 15 to 30% recently;
b) by depends on the GPS-dropwindsondes;
c) was greater from 1940 to 1969 than at any previous time;
d) can be more accurately measured by satellite assistance.
13. The Category 4 hurricane which hit Florida in 1926:
a) was the most catastrophic to hit the U. S. this century;
b) caused $77 billion worth of damage;
c) caused an explosion in population growth;
d) none of the above.
14. Hurricane'Camille':
a) caused $1.5 billion dollars damage in today's money;
b) was the worst U.S. storm this century in terms of life lost;
c) was named in the 1950s;
d) was not as intense as the hurricane of 1926.
15. The writer of the passage probably believes that:
a) accurate tracking of hurricanes might be possible in the future;
b) storm surges only occur within computer simulations;
c) computer predictions are unreliable;
d) the worst hurricanes occur in the U.S.
Text 2
Beneath the Capony
1. The world's tropical rainforests comprise some 6% of the Earth's land area and contain more than half of all known life forms, or a conservative estimate of about 30 million species of plants and animals. Some experts estimate there could be two or even three times as many species hidden within these complex and fast disappearing ecosystems; scientists will probably never know for certain, so vast is the amount of study required.
2. Time is running out for biological research. Commercial development is responsible for the loss of about 17 million hectares of virgin rainforest each year - a figure approximating 1% of what remains of the world's rainforests.
3. The current devastation of once impenetrable rainforest is of particular concern because, although new tree growth may in time repopulate felled areas, the biologically diverse storehouse of flora and fauna is gone forever. Losing this bountiful inheritance, which took millions of years to reach its present highly evolved state, would be an unparalleled act of human stupidity.
4. Chemical compounds that might be extracted from yet-to-be-discovered species hidden beneath the tree canopy could assist in the treatment of disease or help to control fertility. Conservationists point out that important medical discoveries have already been made from material found in tropical rainforests. The drug aspirin, now synthesized, was originally found in the bark of a rainforest tree. Two of the most potent anti-cancer drugs derive from the rosy periwinkle discovered in the 1950s in the tropical rainforests of Madagascar.
5. The rewards of discovery are potentially normous, yet the outlook is bleak.
Timber-rich countries mired in debt, view potential financial gain decades into the future as less attractive than short-term profit from logging. Cataloguing species and analyzing newly-found substances takes time and money, both of which are in short supply.
6. The developed world takes every opportunity to lecture countries which are the guardians of rainforest. Rich nations exhort them to preserve and care for what is left, ignoring the fact that their wealth was in large part due to the exploitation of their own natural world.
7. It is often forgotten that forests once covered most of Europe. Large tracts of forest were destroyed over the centuries for the same reason that the remaining rainforests are now being felled - timber. As well as providing material for housing, it enabled wealthy nations to build large navies and shipping fleets with which to continue their plunder of the world's resources.
8. Besides, it is not clear that developing countries would necessarily benefit financially from extended bioprospecting of their rainforests. Pharmaceutical companies make huge profits from the sale of drugs with little return to the country in which an original discovery was made.
9. Also, cataloguing tropical biodiversity involves much more than a search for medically useful and therefore commercially viable drugs. Painstaking biological fieldwork helps to build immense databases of genetic, chemical and behavioral information that will be of benefit only to those countries developed enough to use them.
10. Reckless logging itself is not the only danger to rainforests. Fires lit to clear land for further logging and for housing and agricultural development played havoc in the late 1990s in the forests of Borneo. Massive clouds of smoke from burning forest fires swept across the southernmost countries of South-East Asia choking cities and reminding even the most resolute advocates of rainforest clearing of the swiftness of nature's retribution.
11. Nor are the dangers entirely to the rainforests themselves. Until very recently, so-called "lost" tribes - indigenous peoples who have had no contact with the outside world - still existed deep within certain rainforests. It is now unlikely that there are any more truly lost tribes. Contact with the modern world inevitably brings with it exploitation, loss of traditional culture, and, in an alarming number of instances, complete obliteration.
12. Forest-dwellers who have managed to live in harmony with their environment have much to teach us of life beneath the tree canopy. If we do not listen, the impact will be on the entire human race. Loss of biodiversity, coupled with climate change and ecological destruction will have profound and lasting consequences.
1. Questions 1 - 5
You are advised to spend about 8 minutes on Questions 1-5. Refer to Reading Passage «Beneath the Canopy" and answer the following questions. The left hand column contains quotations taken directly from the reading passage. The right-hand column contains explanations of those quotations. Match each quotation with the correct explanation.
Example: a conservative estimate - b).
Quotations Explanations
Ex: 'a conservative estimate' (paragraph 1)
a) with many trees but few financial resources
1) 'biologically diverse storehouse of flora and fauna' (paragraph 3)
b) purposely low and cautious reckoning 2) 'timber-rich countries mired in debt'
(paragraph 5)
c) large-scale use of plant and wildlife 3) 'exploitation of their own natural
world'
(paragraph 6)
d) profit from an analysis of the plant and animal life
4) 'benefit financially from extended bioprospecting of their rainforests' (paragraph 8)
e) wealth of plants and animals
5) 'loss of biodiversity' (paragraph 12) f) being less rich in natural wealth
2. Questions 6 - 8
You are advised to spend about 5 minutes on Questions 6-8.
6) How many medical drug discoveries does the article mention?
7) What two shortages are given as the reason for the writer's pessimistic outlook?
8) Who will most likely benefit from the bioprospecting of developing countries' rainforests?
3. Questions 9 – 11.You are advised to spend about 7 minutes on Questions 9- 11. Refer to Reading Passage and choose the best answer.
9)The amount of rainforest destroyed annually is:
a) approximately 6% of the Earth's land area;
b) such that it will only take 100 years to lose all the forests;
c) increasing at an alarming rate;
d) responsible for commercial development.
10)In Borneo in the late 1990s:
a) burning forest fires caused air pollution problems as far away as Europe;
b) reckless logging resulted from burning forest fires;
c) fires were lit to play the game of havoc;
d) none of the above.
11)Many so-called "lost" tribes of certain rainforests:
a) have been destroyed by contact with the modern world;
b) do not know how to exploit the rainforest without causing harm to the environment;
c) are still lost inside the rainforest;
d) must listen or they will impact on the entire human race.
Text 3
Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy is natural heat from the interior of the earth that is converted to heat buildings and generate electricity. The idea of harnessing earth’s internal heat is not new. As early as 1904, geothermal power was used in Italy. Today, earth’s natural internal heat is being used to generate electricity in 21 countries, including Russia, Japan, New Zealand, Iceland, Mexico, Ethiopia, Guatemala, El Salvador, the Philippines, and the United states. Total worldwide production is approaching 9,000 MW (equivalent to nine large modern coal burning or nuclear power plants)—double the amount in 1980. Some 40 million people today receive their electricity from geothermal energy at a cost competitive with that of other energy sources. In El Salvador, geothermal energy is supplying 30% of the total electric energy used. However, at the global level, geothermal energy supplies less than 0.15% of the total energy supply.
Geothermal energy may be considered a nonrenewable energy source when rates of extraction are greater than rates of natural replenishment. However, geothermal energy has its origin in the natural heat production within earth, and only a small fraction of the vast total resource base is being utilized today. Although most geothermal energy production involves the tapping of high heat sources, people are also using the low-temperature geothermal energy of groundwater in some applications.
Geothermal Systems
A. The average heat flow from the interior of the earth is very low, about 0.06 W/m2. B. This amount is trivial compared with the 177 W/m2 from solar heat at the surface in the United States. However, in some areas, heat flow is sufficiently high to be useful for producing energy. For the most part, areas of high heat flow are associated with plate tectonic boundaries. Oceanic ridge systems (divergent plate boundaries) and areas where mountains are being uplifted and volcanic island arcs are forming (convergent plate boundaries) are areas where this natural heat flow is anomalously high. C.
On the basis of geological criteria, several types of hot geothermal systems (with temperatures greater than about 80°C, or 176°F) have been defined, and the resource base is larger than that of fossil fuels and nuclear energy combined. A common system for energy development is hydrothermal convection, characterized by the circulation of steam and/or hot water that transfers heat from depths to the surface. D.
Geothermal Energy and the Environment
The environmental impact of geothermal energy may not be as extensive as that of other sources of energy. When geothermal energy is developed at a particular site, environmental problems include on-site noise, emissions of gas, and disturbance of the land at drilling sites, disposal sites, roads and pipelines, and power plants.
Development of geothermal energy does not require large scale transportation of raw materials or refining of chemicals, as development of fossil fuels does. Furthermore, geothermal energy does not produce the atmospheric pollutants associated with burning fossil fuels or the radioactive waste associated with nuclear energy. However, geothermal development often does produce considerable thermal pollution from hot waste-waters, which may be saline or highly corrosive.
Geothermal power is not always popular. For instance, geothermal energy has been produced for years on the island of Hawaii, where active volcanic processes provide abundant near-surface heat. There is controversy, however, over further exploration and development. Native Hawaiians and others have argued that the exploration and development of geothermal energy degrade the tropical forest as developers construct roads, build facilities, and drill wells. In addition, religious and cultural issues in Hawaii relate to the use of geothermal energy. For example, some people are offended by using the “breath and water of Pele” (the volcano goddess) to make electricity. This issue points out the importance of being sensitive to the values and cultures of people where development is planned.
Future of Geothermal Energy
At present, the United States produces only 2800 MN of geothermal energy.
However, if developed, known geothermal resources in the United States could produce about 20,000 MW which is about 10% of the electricity needed for the
western states. Geohydrothermal resources not yet discovered could conservatively provide four times that amount (approximately 10% of total U.S. electric capacity), about equivalent to the electricity produced from water power today.
1. In paragraph 1, the author introduces the concept of geothermal energy by a) explaining the history of this energy source worldwide;
b) arguing that this energy source has been tried unsuccessfully;
c) comparing the production with that of other energy sources;
d) describing the alternatives for generating electric power.
2. What is true about geothermal energy production worldwide?
a) because it is a new idea, very few countries are developing geothermal energy sources.
b) only countries in the southern Hemisphere are using geothermal energy on a large scale.
c) until the cost of geothermal energy becomes competitive, it will not be used globally.
d) geothermal energy is already being used in a number of nations, but it is not yet a major source of power.
3. The word approaching in the passage is closest in meaning to:
a) hardly;
b) mostly;
c) nearly;
d) briefly.
4. The word that in the passage refers to:
a) electricity;
b) cost;
c) energy;
d) people;
5. In paragraph 2, the author states that geothermal energy is considered a nonrenewable resource because:
a) the production of geothermal energy is a natural process;
b) geothermal energy comes from the earth;
c) we are not using very much geothermal energy now;
d) we could use more geothermal energy than is naturally replaced.
6. Which of the sentences below best expresses the information in the highlighted statement in the passage? The other choices change the meaning or leave out important information:
a) high heat is the source of most of the geothermal energy but low heat groundwater is also used sometimes.
b) even though low temperatures are possible, high heat is the best resource for energy production for groundwater.
c) both high heat and low heat sources are used for the production of geothermal energy from groundwater.
d) most high heat sources for geothermal energy are tapped from applications that involve low heat in groundwater.
7. According to paragraph 3, the heat flow necessary for the production of geothermal energy:
a) is like solar heat on the earth’s surface;
b) happens near tectonic plate boundaries;
c) must always be artificially increased;
d) may be impractical because of its location.
8. the word considerable in the passage is closest in meaning to:
a) large;
b) dangerous;
c) steady;
d) unexpected.
9. In paragraph 5, the author mentions the “atmospheric pollution” and
“waste” for fossil fuel and nuclear power:
a) to introduce the discussion of pollution caused by geothermal energy development and production;
b) to contrast pollution caused by fossil fuels and nuclear power with pollution caused by geothermal energy;
c) to argue that geothermal production does not cause pollution like other sources of energy do;
d) to discourage the use of raw materials and chemicals in the production of energy because of pollution;
10. According to paragraph 6, the production of geothermal energy in Hawaii is controversial for all of the following reasons except:
a) the volcanoes in Hawaii could be disrupted by the rapid release of geothermal energy;
b) the rainforest might be damaged during the construction of the geothermal energy plant;
c) the native people are concerned that geothermal energy is disrespectful to their cultural traditions;
d) some Hawaiians oppose using geothermal energy because of their religious beliefs.
11 What is the author’s opinion of geothermal energy?
a) geothermal energy has some disadvantages, but it is probably going to be used in the future.
b) geothermal energy is a source that should be explored further before large- scale production begins.
c) geothermal energy offers an opportunity to supply a significant amount of power in the future.
d) geothermal energy should replace water power in the production of electricity for the United States.
12. look at the four capital letters [A,B,C,D] that show where the following sentence could be inserted in the passage. Where could the sentence best be added?
One such region is located in the western United States, where recent tectonic and volcanic activity has occurred.
13. Directions: An introduction for a short summary of the passage appears below. Complete the summary by selecting the three answer choices that mention the most important points in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not included in the passage or are minor points from the passage.
Geothermal energy is natural heat from the interior of the Earth that is converted to electricity.
Answer Choices
1. Geothermal energy sources that convert natural heat to electricity account for 30% of the total energy supply in el Salvador at relatively competitive cost to the consumers.
2. Although geothermal energy is nonrenewable when more is used than can be replaced naturally, only a small amount of the potential energy is being exploited worldwide.
3. The heat from geothermal sites is thought to be the breath and water of the volcanic goddess Pele, worshiped by some native groups on the Hawaiian Islands.
4. Hot geothermal systems at both divergent plate boundaries and convergent plate boundaries could provide more energy than fossil fuels and nuclear power.
5. Some groups oppose the exploitation of geothermal sources because of pollution and other environmental problems or because of their cultural values.
6. Thermal waste water can be very corrosive or can contain high levels of saline, which causes problems in disposal and water treatment at development sites.
Text 4
Rising Sea Levels
Sea level must be expressed as a range of values that are under constant reassessment. During the last century, sea level rose 10–20 cm (4–8 inches), a rate 10 times higher than the average rate during the last 3000 years. The 2007 IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) forecast scenarios for global mean sea level rise this century, given regional variations, are
Low forecast: 0.18 m (7.1 in.) Middle forecast: 0.39 m (15.4 in.) High forecast: 0.59 m (23.2 in.)
Observations since 1961 show the average global ocean temperature increased to depths of 3000 m and the ocean absorbed more than 80% of climate system heating. Such warming causes thermal expansion of seawater, contributing to sea level rise. Mountain glaciers and snow cover declined on average in both hemispheres, contributing to sea level rise. Mount Kilimanjaro in Africa, portions of the South American Andes, and the Himalayas will very likely lose most of their glacial ice within the next two decades, affecting local water resources. Glacial ice continues its retreat in Alaska.
Surrounding the margins of Antarctica, and constituting about 11% of its surface area, are numerous ice shelves, especially where sheltering inlets or bays exist. Covering many thousands of square kilometers, these ice shelves extend over the sea while still attached to continental ice. The loss of these ice shelves does not significantly raise sea level, for they already displace seawater. The concern is for the possible surge of grounded continental ice that the ice shelves hold back from the sea.
Although ice shelves constantly break up to produce icebergs, some large sections have recently broken free. In 1998 an iceberg the size of Delaware broke off the Ronne Ice Shelf, southeast of the Antarctic Peninsula. In March 2000 an iceberg tagged B-15 broke off the Ross Ice Shelf (some 90? longitude west of the Antarctic Peninsula), measuring twice the size of Delaware, 300 km by 40 km or 190 mi by 25 mi. Since 1993, six ice shelves have disintegrated in Antarctica. About 8000 km (3090 mi) of ice shelf are gone, changing maps, freeing up islands to circumnavigation, and creating thousands of icebergs. A) Larsen-A suddenly disintegrated in 1995. B) In only 35 days in early 2002, Larsen-B collapsed into icebergs. C) Larsen C, the next segment to the south, is losing mass on its underside.
This ice loss is likely a result of the 2.5°C (4.5°F) temperature increase in the peninsula region in the last 50 years. D) In response to the increasing warmth, the Antarctic Peninsula is sporting new vegetation growth, reduced sea ice, and disruption of penguin feeding, nesting, and fledging activities.
A loss of polar ice mass, augmented by melting of alpine and mountain glaciers (which experienced more than a 30% decrease in overall ice mass during the last century) will affect sea-level rise. The IPCC assessment states that “between one- third to one-half of the existing mountain glacier mass could disappear over the next hundred years.” Also, “there is conclusive evidence for a worldwide recession of mountain glaciers . . . This is among the clearest and best evidence for a change in energy balance at the Earth’s surface since the end of the 19th century.”
Unfortunately, the new measurements of Greenland’s ice loss acceleration did not reach the IPCC in time for its report. Scientists are considering at least a 1.2 m (3.94 ft) high case for estimates of sea-level rise this century as more realistic given Greenland’s present losses coupled with mountain glacial ice losses worldwide.
According to Rahmstorf and colleagues, the data now available raise concerns that the climate system, in particular sea level, may be responding more quickly than climate models indicate. . . . The rate of sea-level rise for the past 20 years is 25%
faster than the rate of rise in any 20-year period in the preceding 115 years. . . . Since 1990, the observed sea level has been rising faster than the rise projected by models.
These increases would continue beyond 2100 even if greenhouse gas concentrations were stabilized.
A quick survey of world coastlines shows that even a moderate rise could bring changes of unparalleled proportions. At stake are the river deltas, lowland coastal farming valleys, and low lying mainland areas, all contending with high water, high tides, and higher storm surges. Particularly tragic social and economic consequences will affect small island states—which are unable to adjust within their present country boundaries—disruption of biological systems, loss of biodiversity, reduction in water resources, and evacuation of residents among the impacts there. There could be both internal and international migrations of affected human populations, spread over decades, as people move away from coastal flooding from the sea-level rise.
1. The word range in the passage is closest in meaning to:
a) function;
b) scale;
c) version;
d) lack.
2. The word likely in the passage is closest in meaning to:
a) suddenly;
b) probably;
c) hopefully;
d) actually.
3. Why does the author mention the state of Delaware in paragraph 4?
a) To include the North American continent in the discussion;
b) To impress the reader with the size of the icebergs;
c) To emphasize the problems of coastal regions;
d) To solicit support from residents in the United States;
4. According to paragraph 4, why is there more new plant life in Antarctica recently?
a) the mountain glaciers have melted;
b) the land masses have split into islands;
c) the icebergs have broken into smaller pieces;
d) the temperature has risen by a few degrees;
5. It may be inferred from this passage that icebergs are formed a) by a drop in ocean temperatures;
b) when an ice shelf breaks free;
c) from intensely cold islands;
d) if mountain glaciers melt.
6. In paragraph 5, the author explains the loss of polar and glacial ice by:
a) stating an educated opinion;
b) referring to data in a study;
c) comparing sea levels worldwide;
d) presenting his research.
7. The word conclusive in the paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to:
a) definite;
b) independent;
c) unique’
d) valuable.
8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the information in the highlighted statement in the passage? The other choices change the meaning or leave out important information:
a) the IPCC did not have the data about ice loss in Greenland before the report was published;
b) this year, the report from Greenland did not measure the new ice loss for the IPCC;
c) the new measurements by the IPCC did not include Greenland’s ice loss this time;
d) Greenland’s recent ice loss had not accelerated enough to be reported to the IPCC.
9. According to paragraph 7, why will people move away from the coastlines in the future?
a) it will be too warm for them to live there;
b) the coastlines will have too much vegetation;
c) flooding will destroy the coastal areas;
d) no agricultural crops will be grown on the coasts.
10. Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the author’s opinion about rising sea levels?
a) sea levels would rise without global warming;
b) rising sea levels can be reversed;
c) the results of rising sea levels will be serious;
d) sea levels are rising because of new glaciers.
11. The word there in the last paragraph refers to:
a) resources;
b) systems;
c) boundaries;
d) states.
12. Look at the four capital letters [A,B,C,D] that show where the following sentence could be inserted in the passage. Where could the sentence best be added?
The Larsen Ice Shelf, along the east coast of the Antarctic Peninsula, has been retreating slowly for years.
13. Directions: An introduction for a short summary of the passage appears below. Complete the summary by selecting the three answer choices that mention the most important points in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not included in the passage or are minor points from the passage.
Global warming is causing a rise in sea levels, with accompanying changes in coastal boundaries as well as social and economic ramifications.
Answer Choices
1. The ice shelf called Larsen-A suddenly disintegrated in 1995.
2. Even an average rise in sea levels will cause serious social and economic changes.
3. Continental ice shelves and grounded ice sheets from Antarctica to the Polar cap are melting into the oceans.
4. It is predicted that many human migrations inland will occur along flooded coastal regions.
5. The melting of glacial ice on high mountain ranges will affect regional water resources worldwide.
6. Scientists at NASA have concluded that the ice sheet in Greenland is melting at a rate of about 1 meter every year.
Text 5
Exotic and Endangered Species
When you hear someone bubbling enthusiastically about an exotic species, you can safely bet the speaker isn’t an ecologist. This is a name for a resident of an established community that was deliberately or accidentally moved from its home range and became established elsewhere. Unlike most imports, which can’t take hold outside their home range, an exotic species permanently insinuates itself into a new community.
Sometimes the additions are harmless and even have beneficial effects. More often, they make native species endangered species, which by definition are extremely vulnerable to extinction. Of all species on the rare or endangered lists or that recently became extinct, close to 70 percent owe their precarious existence or
demise to displacement by exotic species. Two examples are included here to illustrate the problem.
During the 1800s, British settlers in Australia just couldn’t bond with the koalas and kangaroos, so they started to import familiar animals from their homeland.
In 1859, in what would be the start of a wholesale disaster, a northern Australian landowner imported and then released two dozen wild European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). Good food and good sport hunting—that was the idea. An ideal rabbit habitat with no natural predators was the reality.
Six years later, the landowner had killed 20,000 rabbits and was besieged by 20,000 more. The rabbits displaced livestock, even kangaroos. Now Australia has 200 to 300 million hippityhopping through the southern half of the country. They overgraze perennial grasses in good times and strip bark from shrubs and trees during droughts. You know where they’ve been; they transform grasslands and shrublands into eroded deserts. They have been shot and poisoned. Their warrens have been plowed under, fumigated, and dynamited. Even when all-out assaults reduced their population size by 70 percent, the rapidly reproducing imports made a comeback in less than a year. Did the construction of a 2,000-mile-long fence protect western Australia? No. Rabbits made it to the other side before workers finished the fence.
In 1951, government workers introduced a myxoma virus by way of mildly infected South American rabbits, its normal hosts. This virus causes myxomatosis.
The disease has mild effects on South American rabbits that coevolved with the virus but nearly always had lethal effects on O. cuniculus. Biting insects, mainly mosquitoes and fleas, quickly transmit the virus from host to host. Having no coevolved defenses against the novel virus, the European rabbits died in droves. But, as you might expect, natural selection has since favored rapid growth of populations of O. cuniculus resistant to the virus.
In 1991, on an uninhabited island in Spencer Gulf, Australian researchers released a population of rabbits that they had injected with a calcivirus. The rabbits died quickly and relatively painlessly from blood clots in their lungs, hearts, and kidneys. In 1995, the test virus escaped from the island, possibly on insect vectors. It has been killing 80 to 95 percent of the adult rabbits in Australian regions. At this writing, researchers are now questioning whether the calcivirus should be used on a widespread scale, whether it can jump boundaries and infect animals other than rabbits (such as humans), and what the long-term consequences will be.
A vine called kudzu (Pueraria lobata) was deliberately imported from Japan to the United States, where it faces no serious threats from herbivores, pathogens, or competitor plants. In temperate parts of Asia, it is a well-behaved legume with a well- developed root system. It seemed like a good idea to use it to control erosion on hills and highway embankments in the southeastern United States. A) With nothing to stop it, though, kudzu’s shoots grew a third of a meter per day. Vines now blanket streambanks, trees, telephone poles, houses, and almost everything else in their path.
Attempts to dig up or burn kudzu are futile. Grazing goats and herbicides help, but goats eat other plants, too, and herbicides contaminate water supplies. B) Kudzu could reach the Great Lakes by the year 2040.
On the bright side, a Japanese firm is constructing a kudzu farm and processing plant in Alabama. The idea is to export the starch to Asia, where the demand currently exceeds the supply. C) Also, kudzu may eventually help reduce logging operations.
D) At the Georgia Institute of Technology, researchers report that kudzu might become an alternative source for paper.
1. Based on the information in paragraph 1, which of the following best explains the term “exotic species”?
a) animals or plants on the rare species list;
b) a permanent resident in an established community;
c) a species that has been moved to a different community;
d) an import that fails to thrive outside of its home range.
2. The word itself in the paragraph 1 refers to:
a) most imports;
b) new community;
c) home range;
d) exotic species.
3. The word bond in the paragraph 3 is closest in meaning to:
a) move;
b) connect;
c) live;
d) fight.
4. According to the author, why did the plan to introduce rabbits in Australia fail?
a) the rabbits were infected with a contagious virus;
b) most Australians did not like the rabbits;
c) no natural predators controlled the rabbit population;
d) hunters killed the rabbits for sport and for food.
5. All of the following methods were used to control the rabbit population in Australia EXCEPT:
a) they were poisoned;
b) their habitats were buried;
c) they were moved to deserts;
d they were surrounded by fences.
6. Why does the author mention “mosquitoes and fleas” in paragraph 5?
a) because they are the origin of the myxoma virus;
b) because they carry the myxoma virus to other animals;
c) because they die when they are infected by myxoma;
d) because they have an immunity to the myxoma virus.
7. According to paragraph 6, the Spencer Gulf experiment was dangerous because:
a) insect populations were exposed to a virus;
b) rabbits on the island died from a virus;
c) the virus may be a threat to humans;
d) some animals are immune to the virus.
8. The word consequences in the paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to:
a) stages;
b) advantages;
c) results;
d) increases.
9. Why does the author give details about the “kudzu farm” and “processing plant” in paragraph 8?
a) to explain why kudzu was imported from abroad;
b) to argue that the decision to plant kudzu was a good one;
c) to give a reason for kudzu to be planted in Asia;
d) to offer partial solutions to the kudzu problem.
10. The word exceeds in the last paragraph is closest in meaning to:
a) surpasses;
b) destroys;
c) estimates;
d) causes.
11. Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the author’s opinion about exotic species?
a) exotic species should be protected by ecologists;
b) importing an exotic species can solve many problems;
c) ecologists should make the decision to import an exotic species;
d) exotic species are often disruptive to the ecology.
12. Look at the four capital letters [A,B,C,D] that show where the following sentence could be inserted in the passage. Where could the sentence best be added?
Asians use a starch extract from kudzu in drinks, herbal medicines, and candy.
13. Directions: An introduction for a short summary of the passage appears below. Complete the summary by selecting the three answer choices that mention the most important points in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not included in the passage or are minor points from the passage.
Exotic species often require containment because they displace other species when they become established in a new environment.
Answer Choices
1. Rabbits were able to cross a fence 2,000 miles long that was constructed to keep them out of Western Australia.
2. Methods to control exotic species include fences, viruses, burning, herbicides, natural predators, and harvesting.
3. Rabbits that were introduced in Australia and kudzu which was introduced in the United States are examples of species that caused problems.
4. Researchers may be able to develop material from the kudzu vine that will be an alternative to wood pulp paper.
5. The problem is that exotic species make native species vulnerable to extinction.
6. A virus that is deadly to rabbits may have serious effects for other animals.
Text 6
Environmental Impacts of Logging
A) From shipping crates to paper bags, the logging industry supplies the raw materials for an array of products. However, this is not without untold harm to the environment. The damage includes habitat loss, pollution, and climate change, with the effects spanning the globe from the rain forests of Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and South America to the northern forests of Canada and Scandinavia. The effects of logging extend beyond just the felling of a swath of trees. Nutrients, water and shelter for plants, animals, and microorganisms throughout the ecosystem are also lost; many life forms-both terrestrial and aquatic-are becoming endangered as forests vanish.
B) Trees protect the soil beneath them; thus, tree loss can affect soil integrity.
For example, the rain forest floor, home to myriad plant life as well as insects, worms, reptiles and amphibians, and small mammals, relies on a dense canopy of branches and leaves to keep it healthy and intact. The canopy prevents surface runoff by intercepting heavy rainfall so that water can drip down slowly onto the porous earth. Tree roots also stabilize the soil and help prevent erosion. In return, a healthy soil encourages root development and microbial activity, which contribute to tree growth and well-being. A major factor 1n logging-related soil damage comes from road building, with trucks and other heavy equipment compressing the spongy soil, creating furrows where water collects, and disrupting the underground water flow.
Eventually, the topsoil wears away, leaving behind an infertile layer of rocks and hard clay.
C) Logging can also damage aquatic habitats. Vegetation along rivers and stream banks helps maintain a steady water flow by blocking the entry of soil and other residue, and tree shade inhibits the growth of algae. Removing trees obliterates these benefits. When eroding soil flows into waterways, the organic matter within it
consumes more oxygen, which can lead to oxygen depletion in the water, k1111ng fish and other aquatic wildlife.
D) Trees provide a natural defense against air pollution. They remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere while they emit oxygen, and their leaves filter pollutants from the air. Cutting down trees keeps pollutants airborne, where they can mix with water vapor and form acid rain. Water quality in nearby streams and rivers also deteriorates as tree loss contributes to increased sedimentation.
E) In a healthy forest ecosystem, trees draw moisture from the soil and release it into the atmosphere wh1le they provide shade to lessen evaporation. Thus, deforestation impacts rainfall patterns, leading to flooding as well as drought and forest fires. Deforestation is responsible for about one-fifth of carbon dioxide emissions worldwide, making 1t a major contributor to climate change-in particular, global warming. In the Amazon basin alone, deforestation is responsible for millions of tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) being released into the atmosphere annually. Some logging companies bum large tracts of forest just to facilitate access to one area-a practtce2 that discharges even more carbon dioxide.
F) Forests, espec1ally the tropical rain forests, are a vital natural resource with extensive biodiversity and irreplaceable wildlife habitats. More responsible logging practices would help ensure that they are protected for future generations.
1. Questions 1-4. The reading passage contains six paragraphs, A-F. Which paragraphs discuss the following information? Write the correct letter A-F.
1) ____ the impact of logging on the weather;
2) ____ how trees inhibit soil erosion;
3) ____ how deforestation contributes to air pollution;
4) ____ the impact of erosion on fish.
2. Questions 5-8. Complete the summary using words from the list below.
aquatic arrays defense fells habitats intercepts myriad vegetation The logging industry ____ (5) trees to get the wood that is used to make many products. This practice has ____ (6) effects on the environment. The natural ____ (7) of many terrestrial and aquatic animals are damaged. Trees protect the environment in many ways. They are an effective ____ (8) against both air pollution and soil erosion.
3. Word Family Practice. Choose the correct word family member from the list below to complete each blank.
Modern industry has caused damage to our natural ____ (9) in many ways.
The air and water are filled with ____ (10). One result of this is acid rain, which has caused ____ (11) damage to vegetation in many areas. When large amounts of vegetation die off, the environment loses ____ (12) . If there are no plants to hold the soil, it starts to ____ (13). This leads to myriad problems, including water pollution
and habitat loss. ____ (14) of wildlife work hard to prevent further damage to natural areas.
9. environment environmental environmentally
10. pollution pollutants pollutes
11. extent extend extensive
12. stability stabilizes stable
13. erosion erode eroded
14. Defenses Defenders Defends
Text 7
The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems
1. Plant communities assemble themselves flexibly, and their particular structure depends on the specific history of the area. Ecologists use the term
“succession” to refer to the changes that happen in plant communities and ecosystems over time. The first community in a succession is called a pioneer community, while the long-lived community at the end of succession is called a climax community.
Pioneer and successional plant communities are said to change over periods from 1 to 500 years. These changes—in plant numbers and the mix of species—are cumulative.
Climax communities themselves change but over periods of time greater than about 500 years.
2. An ecologist who studies a pond today may well find it relatively unchanged in a year’s time. Individual fish may be replaced, but the number of fish will tend to be the same from one year to the next. We can say that the properties of an ecosystem are more stable than the individual organisms that compose the ecosystem.
3. At one time, ecologists believed that species diversity made ecosystems stable. They believed that the greater the diversity the more stable the ecosystem.
Support for this idea came from the observation that long-lasting climax communities usually have more complex food webs and more species diversity than pioneer communities. Ecologists concluded that the apparent stability of climax ecosystems depended on their complexity- To take an extreme example, farmlands dominated by a single crop are so unstable that one year of bad weather or the invasion of a single pest can destroy the entire crop. In contrast, a complex climax community, such as a temperate forest, will tolerate considerable damage from weather or pests.
4. The question of ecosystem stability is complicated, however. The first problem is that ecologists do not all agree what "stability" means. Stability can be defined as simply lack of change In that case, the climax community would be considered the most stable, since, by definition, it changes the least over time.
Alternatively, stability can be defined as the speed with which an ecosystem returns to a particular form following a major disturbance, such as a fire. This kind of stability is also called resilience. In that case, climax communities would be the most fragile and the least stable, since they can require hundreds of years to return to the climax state.
5. Even the kind of stability defined as simple lack of change is not always associated with maximum diversity. At least in temperate zones, maximum diversity is often found in mid-successional stages, not in the climax community. Once a redwood forest matures, for example, the kinds of species and the number of individuals growing on the forest floor are reduced. In general, diversity, by itself, does not ensure stability. Mathematical models of ecosystems likewise suggest that diversity does not guarantee ecosystem stability—just the opposite, in fact. A more complicated system is, in general, more likely than a simple system to break down (A fifteen-speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle.)
6. A) Ecologists are especially interested to know what factors contribute to the resilience of communities because climax communities all over the world are being severely damaged or destroyed by human activities. B) The destruction caused by the volcanic explosion of Mount St Helens, in the northwestern United States, for example, pales in comparison to the destruction caused by humans. C)We need to know what aspects of a community are most important to the community's resistance to destruction, as well as its recovery. D)
7. Many ecologists now think that the relative long-term stability of climax communities comes not from diversity but from the "patchiness” of the environment;
an environment that varies from place to place supports more kinds of organisms than an environment that is uniform. A local population that goes extinct is quickly replaced by immigrants from an adjacent community. Even if the new population is of a different species, it can approximately fill the niche vacated by the extinct population and keep the food web intact.
1. The word particular in the paragraph 4 is closest in meaning to:
a) natural;
b) final;
c) specific;
d) complex.
2) According to paragraph 1, which of the following is not true of climax communities?
a) they occur at the end of a succession;
b) they last longer than any other type of community;
c) he numbers of plants in them and the mix of species do not change;
d) they remain stable for at least 500 years at a time.
3. According to paragraph 2, which of the following principles of ecosystems can be learned by studying a pond?
a) ecosystem properties change more slowly than individuals in the system;
b) the stability of an ecosystem tends to change as individuals are replaced;
c) individual organisms are stable from one year to the next;
d) a change in the numbers of an organism does not affect an ecosystem’s properties.
4. According to paragraph 3, ecologists once believed that which of the following illustrated the most stable ecosystems?
a) pioneer communities;
b) climax communities;
c) single-crop farmlands;
d) successional plant communities.
5. According to paragraph 4, why is the question of ecosystem stability complicated?
a) the reasons for ecosystem change are not always clear;
b) ecologists often confuse the word stability' with the word “resilience'';
c) the exact meaning of the word "stability" is debated by ecologists;
d) there are many different answers to ecological questions.
6. According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of climax communities?
a) they are more resilient than pioneer communities;
b) they can be considered both the most and the least stable communities;
c) they are stable because they recover quickly after major disturbances;
d) they are the most resilient communities because they change the least over time.
7. Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 5 about redwood forests?
a) they become less stable as they mature;
b) they support many species when they reach climax;
c) they are found in temperate zones;
d) they have reduced diversity during mid-successional stages.
8. The word guarantee in the paragraph 5 is closest in meaning to:
a) increase;
b) ensure;
c) favor;
d) complicate.
9. In paragraph 5, why does the author provide the information that (A fifteen- speed racing bicycle is more likely to break down than a child's tricycle.)?
a) to illustrate a general principle about the stability of systems by using an everyday;
b) to demonstrate that an understanding of stability in ecosystems can be applied to help understand stability in other situations;
c) to make a comparison that supports the claim that, in general stability increases with diversity;
d) to provide an example that contradicts mathematical models of ecosystems.
10. The word pales in the paragraph 6 is closest in meaning to:
a) increases proportionally;
b) differs;
c) loses significance;
d) is common.
11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the paragraph 5? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.
a) ecologists now think that the stability of an environment is a result of diversity rather than patchiness;
b) patchy environments that vary from place to place do not often have high species diversity;
c) uniform environments cannot be climax communities because they do not support as many types of organisms as patchy environments;
d) a patchy environment is thought to increase stability because it is able to support a wide variety of organisms.
12. The word adjacent in the paragraph 7 is closest in meaning to a) foreign;
b) stable;
c) fluid;
d) neighboring.
13. Look at the four capital letters that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?
In fact, damage to the environment by humans is often much more severe than damage by natural events and processes.
a) A b) B c) C d) D
14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the three answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.
The process of succession and the stability of a climax community can change overtime.
a) the changes that occur in an ecosystem from the pioneer to the climax community can be seen in one human generation.
b) a high degree of species diversity does not always result in a stable ecosystem.
c) disagreements over the meaning of the term "stability" make it difficult to identify the most stable ecosystems.
d) ecologists agree that climax communities are the most stable types of ecosystems.
e) the level of resilience in a plant community contributes to its long-term stability.
f) the resilience of climax communities makes them resistant to destruction caused by humans.
Text 8
The truth about the environment
For many environmentalists, the world seems to be getting worse. They have developed a hit-list of our main fears: that natural resources are running out, that the population is ever growing, leaving less and less to eat, that species are becoming extinct in vast numbers, and that the planet's air and water are becoming ever more polluted.
But a quick look at the facts shows a different picture. First, energy and other natural resources have become more abundant, not less so, since the book 'The Limits to Growth' was published in 1972 by a group of scientists. Second, more food is now produced per head of the world's population than at any time in history. Fewer people are starving. Third, although species are indeed becoming extinct, only about 0.7% of them are expelled to disappear in the next 50 years, not 25-50%, as has so often been predicted. And finally, most forms of environmental pollution either appear to have been exaggerated, or are transient - associated with the early phases of industrialization and therefore best cured not by restricting economic growth, but by accelerating it. One form of pollution - the release of greenhouse gases that causes global warming - does appear to be a phenomenon that is going to extend well into our future, but its total impact is unlikely to pose a devastating problem. A bigger problem may well turn out to be an inappropriate response to it.
Yet opinion polls suggest that many people nurture the belief that environmental standards are declining and four factors seem to cause this disjunction between perception and reality.
One is the lopsidedness built into scientific research. Scientific funding goes mainly to areas with many problems. That may be wise policy but it will also create an impression that many more potential problems exist than is the case.
Secondly, environmental groups need to be noticed by the mass media. They also need to keep the money rolling in. Understandably, perhaps, they sometimes overstate their arguments. In 1997, for example, the World Wide Fund for Nature
