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Ministry Education and Science of Republic of Kazakhstan E.A. Buketov Karaganda University
Faculty of Biology and Geography Botany Department
Margarita Yu. Ishmuratova
ESSENTIAL OIL PLANTS OF THE KARAGANDA REGION
Monograph
Karaganda 2020
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UDC 28.5 LBK 58 1-10
Author: Ishmuratova Margarita Yulayevna, candidate of biological science, associated professor of E.A. Buketov Karaganda University
Reviewers:
Aiman Ye. Konkabayeva – doctor of medical science, professor of E.A.
Buketov Karaganda University
Gayane A. Atazhanova – doctor of chemical science, professor of the Medical University of Karaganda, corresponding-member of National Academy of Science
1-10. ESSENTIAL OIL PLANTS OF THE KARAGANDA REGION / M.Yu Ishmuratova. – Karaganda: “Arko” Ltd, 2020. – 107 pages.
ISBN 978-601-204-506-2
The monograph presents the results of the study of essential oil plants in the natural flora of the Karaganda region and after introduction into the culture. The complete species composition has been determined, which included 275 species from 130 genera and 35 families. The leading families are Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, the largest genera Artemisia, Achillea and Thymus. A conspectus of flora has been compiled; an environmental characteristic of species, an analysis of life forms and the degree of prevalence has been given. Plant resources of essential oil plants in nature have been determined. The success of the introduction of essential oil plants in the culture conditions was evaluated; objects promising for industrial cultivation were identified. For some essential oil plants; recommendations for their cultivation have been proposed.
Results of study were published in frame of grant ‘The Best High School Teacher – 2019”.
The monograph is intended for specialists in the field of botany, plant introduction, workers in botanical gardens, forestry, environmentalists, pharmacists, teachers and students of colleges and universities of biological, pharmaceutical and agricultural profiles.
The monograph was recommended for publication at the Council of E.A.
Buketov Karaganda University (protocol No. 6 from December, 24, 2020).
ISBN 978-601-204-506-2 UDC 28.5
LBK 58
© M. Yu. Ishmuratova, 2020
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CONTENT
INTRODUCTION ………. 4
1 THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ESSENTIAL OILS AND
THEIR ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE ……… 6
2 CLIMATES AND VEGETATION OF THE KARAGANDA REGION . 17 3 WILD ESSENTIAL OIL PLANTS OF THE KARAGANDA REGION . 21 3.1 The analysis of essential oil plants of the Karaganda region and their
ranking ……… 21
3.2 Conspectus of flora of essential oil plants ……… 30 3.3 Study of raw material resources of some essential oil plants of the
Karaganda region ……… 49
3.4 Study of dynamics of quantitative accumulation of essential oils in some
species ………. 60
4 ASSESSMENT OF INTRODUCTION INTO CULTURE ESSENTIAL
OIL PLANTS IN THE CONDITIONS OF THE CENTRAL
KAZAKHSTAN ……… 63
4.1 Evaluation of the introduction potential of essential oil plants in the conditions of the cities of Karaganda and Zhezkazgan ……….. 63
CONCLUSION ……….. 74
BIBLIOGRAPHY ……….. 76
APPENDIX A. POINT MAPS OF AREAS OF ESSENTIAL OIL PLANTS
OF THE KARAGANDA REGION ……….. 86
APPENDIX B. PHOTOGRAPHS OF ESSENTIAL OIL PLANTS OF
NATURAL FLORA OF THE KARAGANDA REGION ……… 97
APPENDIX C. QUANTITATIVE ACCUMULATIO OF ESSENTIAL OILS IN SOME ESSENTIAL OIL PLANTS OF THE CENTRAL
KAZAKHSTAN’S FLORA ……….. 103
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INTRODUCTION
The flora of Republic of Kazakhstan is more than 5500 species [1], contains all practical-valued groups of plants [2-5], including essential oil plants [6].
For the conservation and systematic use of Kazakhstan's biological potential, in addition to introduced objects, wild plant species are also promising. However, in order to achieve the objectives set out in the UN Convention on Biological Diversity [7], a complete inventory of floristic diversity is first and foremost necessary in order to identify its main components, which could be further balanced used and preserved.
The development of modern industries’ branches and the rapid growth of the human population in the next 50 years present to scientists the task of finding renewable resources, as food sources, bio fuels, medicinal preparations, cosmetics and hygiene products, which leads to increased interest in national plant resources.
The World Health Organization (WHO) noted in recent decades an increase in the use of herbal preparations and an increase in the proportion of medicinal and essential oil plants by the population of the world [8]. In many countries, the use of phytopreparations is recommended; their inclusion in national health programmes.
So, herbal medicines have low toxicity, act more comprehensively, have no practical side effects, are quite cheap and easily accessible [9, 10].
An important source of practically useful compounds are essential oil plants, the components of which are used in the food, liquor, perfume and cosmetic industry; essential oils possess antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, fungicidal, wound-healing, antiviral and other types of biological activity [6, 11-16].
Essential oils, extracted from aromatic plants, as well as their individual components, from ancient times, have been used by humans as medicinal, antiseptic, perfume and protective agents (repellents, attractants and others).
Currently, the essential oil industry is widely developed in many countries of the world. World production of essential oil exceeds 150 thousand tons [17-19].
Among the countries, the world's producers of essential oil dominate Brazil (40%), USA (20%), India (15%) [20]. Many developing countries have significant potential for the production of essential oils. Thus, 65% of the total production of aromatics comes from developing countries, 35% from industrialized states. The main importers of essential oils are the countries of the European Union, USA, Japan, Canada, Pakistan, China and Switzerland [19]. In the presence of rich raw material potential of ether carriers in Kazakhstan, their industrial production has not been carried out to date.
Currently, the need for essential oils and raw materials is satisfied in Kazakhstan only through imports, although there is a potential for own production.
The relevance of the study is due to the need of the food, aromatic, healthcare and pharmaceutical industry of the Republic of Kazakhstan for new and effective medicines and supplements of plant origin. The study of the species composition of wild-growing and cultivated essential oil plants is relevant, since Kazakhstan has huge reserves of essential plant resources, and only a small part of them is used
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in practical medicine. The creation and development of such industries meets the requirements of economic management in the modern conditions of a market economy.
The aim of the present study was to identify the species composition and raw stock of essential oil plants in the territory of the Karaganda region (Central Kazakhstan) and their introduction tests with the identification of promising taxa for cultivation.
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1 THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ESSENTIAL OILS AND THEIR ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE
Essential oil plants are a group of plants that contain odorous essential oils in specialized (less often not specialized) cells or structures. Essential oils usually consist of light fractions of different chemical compositions, have volatility, are oily, are usually lighter than water and do not dissolve in it [21]. Almost all oils dissolve well in alcohol and are mixed in all proportions with chloroform, petroleum ether, and other organic solvents.
These plants began to be called essential oils in the 19th century, when industrial quantities of odorous substances began to be obtained from them - primarily essential oils. The ability to produce essential oils is noted in more than 3,000 plant species belonging to the families Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Rutaceae, Asteraceae, Cupressaceae, Pinaceae, Annonaceae, Zingiberaceae, Myrtaceae, Lauraceae, Geraniaceae, Rosaceae, etc., but about 200 species are of industrial importance in the world.
Most essential oil plants grow in the tropics and subtropics, where many woody species grow (citrus, ginger, cinnamon tree, clove tree, laurel, etc.). In the temperate zone, the main amount of essential oil plants are herbaceous plants from the genera Salvia, Artemisia, Achillea, Mentha, Anisum, Acorus, Tanacetum, Thymus, Dragocephalum, Hyssopus, etc. [11, 12, 15]. It is noted that mainly essential oils are produced in dicotyledonous plants; then in monocotyledons many families (such as Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Palmaceae) do not form these substances.
The total number of essential oil plants is estimated at 3,000 species from 77 families.
Essential oils are complex natural mixtures of aromatic substances belonging to various classes of organic compounds, mainly terpenoids (monoterpenes, diterpenes, sesquiterpes), less often aromatic or aliphatic compounds. They are called “oils” for external similarities with fatty oils. The name "essential" is associated with physical properties - high volatility.
The classification is based on the main components of essential oil, which are carriers of the smell of current oil and determine biological activity. Essential oils can be conditionally divided into the following groups (Fig. 1):
i) acyclic monoterpenes (linalool, geraniol, citral);
ii) monocyclic monoterpenes (menthol, cineol);
iii) bicyclic monoterpenes (camphor, pinene);
iv) sesquiterpenes (azulene, santonin);
v) aromatic compounds (thymol).
Currently, the chemical composition of more than 2000 essential oils has been studied; among them accordantly 500 individual compounds have been isolated.
Essential oils are formed in various organs of plants, both above-ground and underground [22-24], accumulating in special receptacles (schisogenic or lysigenic origin), glandular hairs, essential-oil glands, inside specialized cells or in the form of drops in non-specialized cells (Fig. 2, 3).
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Β-Bisabolene Limonene Verbenol
Bergapten Thymol Vanillin
Menthol Pulegone Carvone
1,8-Cineole Limonene Pulegone
α-Pinene -Terpinene Menthon
Caryophyllene Β-Myrcene Eugenol
Figure 1. Examples of the most using components of essential oils
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Specialized receptacles of Ferula foetida’s leaf
Gland of Nepeta densifolia’s leaf
Essential oil gland of Thymus lavrenkoanus’s leaf
Essential oil glands of Nepera sibirica’s shoot
Essential oil receptacles of Centaurea ruthenica’s leaf
Receptacles of Centaurea bipinnatifida’s petiole
Figure 2. Localization of essential oils in different plant organs and tissue
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Essential oil gland of Salvia deserta’s leaf
Essential oil gland and drops of essential oil in non-specialized cells of Salvia
deserta’s leaf
Essential oil receptacles of Ferula tatarica’s seed
Glandular hairs of Salvia stepposa’s leaf
Essential oil glands of Pulicaria prostrata’s flower
Gland of Dragocephalum grandiflorum’s petiole Figure 3. Localization of essential oils in different plant organs and tissue
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In plants, essential oils perform a number of important functions:
i) they are secondary metabolites, take part in metabolism;
ii) evaporation of essential oils during high temperatures helps to reduce the level of water transpiration;
iii) attract insects - pollinators;
iv) serves as an agent for protection of plants against pathogenic microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, fungi);
v) frighten herbivores due to bitter taste of essential oil;
vi) inter –plants signaling.
Accumulation of essential oils depends on a number of factors, among them illumination, temperature, presence of moisture, content of micro- and macro- elements in soil, height above sea level, age, vegetation phase [25-30]. Thus, high solar activity and moisture deficiency lead to an increase in the accumulation of essential oils in plants. The direct dependence of essential oil accumulation on the sum of positive temperatures is noted. In flowers of Chamomilla reticuta the maximum accumulation of essential oil is in phase of beginning of flowering; in root of Valeriana officinalis – the end of fruitening; for raw material of Coriandrum sativum – in phase of mature seeds. Young plants usually accumulate more essential oils, than old plants.
More essential oils accumulate on rich soils in plants than on poor soils. Thus, agricultural measures and fertilizers have a significant impact on plant yields and the accumulation of valuable components.
XX century is a period of active development of essential oil production in the countries of the former Soviet Union. The main production was concentrated in the territories of Crimea, Moldova, the Caucasus (Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia) and the Central Asia (Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and Turkmenistan; to a lesser extent Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan). Until the beginning of the 90s of the last century, about 25 species of crops were cultivated. Among them are:
Coriandrum sativum (90% of all areas occupied by essential oil crops), Carum carvi, Anethum graveolens, Foeniculum officinalis, Mentha piperita, Salvia sclarea, Salvia officinalis, Rosa x damascene, Rosa alba, Lavandula, Artemisia, etc [31, 32].
The interest of many researchers in the world in recent decades has been aimed at finding new promising species of essential oil plants in the families:
Apiaceae, Asteraceae, Cupressaceae, Geraniaceae, Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Pinaceae, Rutaceae and Taxaceae. Great attention is paid to the study of the component composition of essential oils. The increasing number of publications on this group of plants, their component composition, assessment of biological activity, features of accumulation in plants, introduction of essential-oil plants shows the relevance of work with this group of useful plants.
Modern centers for the study of essential oils and essential oil plants are India, Turkey, China, Egypt, USA and Brazil, which account for the bulk of publications in this area. Currently, there is a specialization in the production of certain varieties of essential oil [15] and vegetable raw materials (Tab. 1).
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Table 1. Production of essential oils and essential oil plants in different countries of world
Country Name of production essential oil / essential oil plant
1 2
Austria Spruce, pine
Australia Kayeput, tea tree, eucalyptus
Argentina Lemongrass, citronella, lavender, eucalyptus, fennel Bulgaria Rose oil, mint, anise, lavender, chamomile
Brasilia Eucalyptus, sassafras, citrus, basil, mint Vietnam Citronella, badyan, cubebs, citrus fruits Haiti American sandalwood, neroli, vetiver Guatemala Citronella, lemongrass, cardamom Guinea Nerole, petitgrain
Greece Cypress
Zanzibar Clove oil
India Aghon, vetiver, jasmine, ginger, palmarose, rose oil, patchouli, Indian sandalwood, black pepper, eucalyptus Indonesia Citronella, patchouli, cananga, cayeput
Spain and Portuguese
Anise, rosemary, mint, thyme, fennel, eucalyptus
Italy Orange, bitter orange, grapefruit, bergamot, lemon, tangerine, mint, neroli, rose oil, geraniac, basil
Canada Cedar oil
China Citronella, mint, lemongrass, lyceum, eucalyptus Congo Eucalyptus, vetiver, lemongrass
Madagascar Ylang-ylang, clove oil Macedonia Valerian, issope, sage Morocco, Tunisia,
Algeria
Geraniac, neroli, rosemary, myrtle, eucalyptus, rose oil, wormwood
Mexico, Honduras Citronella, lemongrass
Nepal Palmrose
Pakistan Orange, vanilla,
Poland Angelic, mint, coriander, anise, cumin, medicinal sage, spruce, juniper
Puerto-Rico Vetiver
Russian Federation Spruce, fir, coriander, mint, rose oil Serbia Lavender, mint, fennel, sage
Singapore Patchouli
Somali Myrrh
Swiss Mint
Ukraine Sage, lavender, lavandiner, mint
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1 2
USA Mint, citrus, anise, cedar, wormwood, conifers (pine, spruce) Thailand Orange, bergamot, jasmine, rosemary, eucalypt
Turkish Laurel, origanum, rose oil, thyme, conifer
Finland Caraway
France verbena, origanum, jasmine, lavender, lavandine, marjoram, fennel
Croatia Hyssop, juniper, sage
Ceylon Citronella, cardamom, cinnamon, ginger, cinnamon, litsea, melissa
Java Nutmeg, citronella
Jamaica Orange and limettes, litsea, melissa
Japan Mint
The best companies for essential oil production are “Young living essential oils”, “doTERRA”, “Plant Therapy”, “Reviver Essential oils”, “Rocky Mountain Oils”, “Edens Garden”, “Mountain roe herbs”, “Jade Bloom”, “Now Essential oils”, “Aura Cacia”, “Lagunamoon”, “Plant Guru”, “Radha”, etc.
In most cases essential oils are produced from fresh raw materials (green mass of geranium, lavender flowers). But some oils are obtained from partially fermented (mint), dried (thyme, salvia, acorus roots) or pre-fermented (rose flowers, iris roots, oak moss) raw materials. Depending on the nature of the raw materials and the basic properties of the oils, for their extraction, another method is used, which allows to obtain the highest yield and the best quality of essential oil [33-37].
In production practice are used the following methods:
A) Steam distillation. It is used if the essential oil raw materials contain a relatively large amount of essential oil; its components are not destroyed after treatment of high temperature (about 100 °C). Distillation is carried out in special apparatuses (for example, Clevenger apparatus). The raw material is either charged into water (hydro-distillation) or treated directly with steam (steam distillation) (Fig. 4).
B) Enfleurage is a method of absorbing essential oil with solid fats. It was mainly used to extract oil from plant petals. The method is expensive and rarely used (Fig. 5).
C) Pressing is used to extract essential oil from the peel of citrus fruits.
D) Maceration is extraction of flower raw materials with fatty oils when heated.
E) Extraction by organic solvents (petroleum ether, ethyl alcohol, acetone, etc.). This method is not convenient, since other organic substances are released with it. Recently, the method of carbon dioxide extraction – CO2-extraction.
(cryogenic method) has gained popularity (Fig. 6).
F) Microwave extraction is a method of extracting valuable substances from plant raw materials using microwave energy, characterized in that extraction is
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carried out by steam of water included in the raw material and heated by microwave energy.
Figure 4. Steam distillation of essential oil plants. Scheme
Figure 5. Extraction of essential oils by enfleurage method
Figure 6. CO2-extraction of essential oil raw material
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Essential oils have different types of biological activities (Tab. 2).
Table 2. Biological activity of some essential oil plants Biological
activity
Essential oil plants or individual compound of essential oil
Bibliogra phy
1 2 3
Anti-cancer Nigella damascene, Zornia brasiliensis,
Tarchonanthus camphorates, Abies balsamea, Zanthoxylum schinifolium, Aniba rosaeodora, Pinus densiflora, Boswellia sacra, Litsea cubeba, Curcuma zedoaria, Monarda citriodora, Pinus koraiensis, Artemisia capillaries, Thymus vulgaris, Cymbopogon flexuosus, Pogostemon cablin, Curcuma wenyujin, Cinnamomum cassia, Cryptomeria japonica, Artemisia vulgaris
38, 39, 40, 44
Anti-
inflammatory
Citrus limon, Populus balsamifera, Chamomilla reticuta
41
Anti-bacterial Carvacrol, citral, limonene 13
Anti-parasitic Coriandrum sativum, Solidago canadensis, Lavandula intermedia, Piper cubeba, Cymbopogon species, C.
citratus, C. giganteus., C. nardus, C. schoenantus, Ocimum gratissima, Artemisia indica, Artemisia ansinthium, Foeniculum vulgare, Artemisia annua, Thymus capitellatus, Artemisia cina, Artemisia taurica
42, 45
Allochemical Xanthium strumarium 43
Anti-fungal Origanum syriacum, Thymbra spicata, Lavandula stoechas, Rosmarinus officinalis, Foeniculum vulgare, Laurus nobilis, Lavandula multifida, Thymus eryocalyx, Matricaria chamomilla, Cinnamomum jensenianum, Mentha piperita, Anethum graveolens, Piper betle, Zataria multiflora
13, 45, 46
Hepatoprotect ive
Artemisia capillaries 13, 45, 46
Wound- healing
Hypericum perforatum, Artemisia vulgaris, Artemisia leucoides
21
Insecticide Eucalyptus, Acorus calamnus 21
Necrotic Juniperus Sabina 21
Photosensitiz ative
Angelica, Heracleum mantegazzianum 21 Expectorant Thymus serpyllum, Thymus vulgare, Mentha arvensis,
Salvia officinalis
21, 44, 45
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1 2 3
Stimulation of digestion
Anethum, Angelica, Mentha piperita, Calamus, Curcuma xanthorrhiza, Chamomilla reticuta, Foenicum, Citrus sinensis
44-47
Smasmolytic Citrus sinensis, Chamomilla reticuta, Carum carvi, Foenicum anisum, Mentha piperita, Melissa officinalis
45-47 Diuretic Origanum vulgare, Melaleuca viridiflora0 45, 46 Stimulation
of blood circulation
Rosemarinum, Lavandula, Mentha piperita, camphor 44-47
Narcotic Artemisia absinthium, Tanacetum vulgare, Thuja 21 Abortive Juniperus sabina, Thuja occidentatus, Chenopodium
ambrosioides
21
Cancerogenic Acorus calamnus 21
The use of essential oil plants in Kazakhstan requires their comprehensive study by regions of the republic. Earlier studies (works of M.I. Goryaev, S.N.
Kudryashov, N.V. Pavlov, L.K. Klyshev, M.K. Kukenov, L.F. Demidovskaya, V.Yu. Averina, A.D. Dembitsky, Y. Suleimen, G. Atazhanova, D.T. Sadyrbekov, R.A. Egeubaeva, A.B. Myrzagaliyeva and others) gave extensive material on raw materials [6, 11, 12, 48-54].
The study of the resource potential of essential oil plants in Kazakhstan is carried out by employees of the plant resources laboratory of the Institute of Botany and Phyto-Introduction (Almaty), the Department of Botany of East Kazakhstan State University (Ust-Kamenogorsk), whose research covered the territories of Southern, Southeast and partially Eastern Kazakhstan [6, 11, 50]. The species composition of essential-oil flora is described, raw materials for certain species are identified; dynamics of accumulation of active substances is studied. A row of investigation were conducted on the base of JSC “International Scientific – Production Holding “Phytochemistry”, E.A. Buketov Karaganda University (Karaganda, the Central Kazakhstan) and Zhezkazgan Botanical Garden (Zhezkazgan) with such species, as Ziziphora clinopodioides, Thymus marschallianus, Thymus vulgaris, Thymus rasitatus, Hyssopus ambiguus, Achillea millefolium, Ajania fruticulosa, Hypericum perforatum, Chamomilla reticuta, Artemisia glabella, Artemisia annua, Artemisia pontica, etc. [12, 16, 52-61].
In neighboring countries, significant comprehensive studies on the introduction, resources and chemical study of essential oil plants are presented at the All-Russian Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, the Main Botanical Garden (Moscow); Komarov Botanical Institute (St. Petersburg); Tomsk State Medical Institute and Tomsk State University (Tomsk); the Central Siberian Botanical Garden, Institute of Forest Chemistry, Institute of Organic Chemistry (Novosibirsk). Significant developments in the cultivation of essential oil plants were made on the basis of the laboratory of aromatic plants of the scientific research station of medicinal plants (Berezochota, Ukraine) [60, 62-65].
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Chemical research on the composition of essential oils and individual components in Kazakhstan is carried out at JSC “International Scientific – Production Holding “Phytochemistry” (Karaganda), the Institute of Chemical Sciences, the Faculty of Chemistry of Al-Fabari Kazakh National University, Institue of Plant Biology and Biotechnology (Almaty), Institute of Applied Chemistry of the L.N. Gumilyev Eurasian National University (Nur-Sultan).
In the Central Kazakhstan plants of the natural flora were ranked in various areas of practical application: feed, technical, medicinal, honey, ornamental, food, essential-oil, vitamin, etc. Their species composition was determined, promising groups for further research were identified. Based on the analysis of literary data and the results of research studies, a preliminary list of essential oil plants of the Karaganda region was complied.
The chemical composition of 66 species of wild-growing essential oil plants of the Central Kazakhstan belonging to the families Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, Cupressaceae, Pinaceae was studied; the component composition and physicochemical characteristics were described; for 26 species, the composition is characterized for the first time [12, 14, 16, 52-54]. From a number of essential substances of wild raw material of the Central Kazakhstan are identified, individual compounds, which were interested for medicine. Among them:
pulegone from essential oil of Ziziphora clinopodioides, menthol from essential oil of Mentha arvernsis and M. piperita, limonene from essential oil of Erigeron canadensis, dillapiol from essential oil of Galeopsis bifida, buddledin C from essential oil of Pulicaria prostrate, 3-carene and pinene from essential oil of Pinus sylvestris, thymol from essential oil of Thymus marschallianus, artemisia-ketone from Artemisia annua, sabinene and sabinyl acetate from essential oil of Juniperus sabina. The expressed anti-microbial activity of the essential oil of Artemisia tomentella and Pinus sylvestris; anti-inflammatory and wound healing activity of essential oil of Ajania fruticulosa; tuberculosis activity of essential oil of Artemisia sieversiana and Artemisia filatovae were found [12, 14].
Thus, the Central Kazakhstan is a promising region for the botanical study of essential oil plants. However, these works were not carried out at a sufficient level in the Central Kazakhstan, which makes our planned studies relevant and practically significant.
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2 CLIMATES AND VEGETATION OF THE KARAGANDA REGION The territory of the Central Kazakhstan (the Karaganda region) is located within the continental Western Siberian steppe zone and occupied the middle position in the republic (Fig. 7), bordering in the north with Akmola and Pavlodar regions, in the north-west – with Kostanai region, in the east – with Eastern Kazakhstan region, in the south – with Zhambyl and Southern Kazakhstan region [66]. The total area of the Karaganda region is 428 thousand square km.
Figure 7. Location of the Karaganda region in Kazakhstan
The following floristic districts are located on the territory of the Central Kazakhstan: Western lowland, Eastern lowland, Betpakdala, Karkaraly and Ulytau [67].
The negative aspects of the geographical position of the Karaganda region are expressed in the aridity of the climate, low rainfall. Common and typical for the climate of the Republic and, in particular, of the Karaganda region, is the mainland air temperature regime, which is characterized by great contrast, sharp seasonal and annual fluctuations [68].
The main part of the region is located in the central-kazakhstani lowland. It is a heavily destroyed ancient mountain system that has become a hilly country with heights from 300 to 900 meters. The shallow ridge is characterized by alternating randomly scattered elevations with wavy plains, wide valleys and closed basins [69, 70]. In the southwest, the central-kazakhstani lowland passes into the sandy massifs of Karakum, Mynbulak, Aryskum, Moyinkum; in the south is the northern outskirts of the Betpakdala upland.
Hills are composed of shale, sandstone, limestone, which are easily weathered and have small heights. A significant feature of the relief is the development of meso- and micro-relief.
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Typical plains are associated with river valleys: Nura, Sherubai Nura, Jarly, Taldy, Sarysu, Tersakkan. The eastern part of the region is covered by the Karkarlinsky mountain junction, represented by the Kyzylrai Mountains (absolute height 1559 m), Karkaraly (absolute height 1403 m), Kent (absolute height 1369 m), Genghiztau (absolute height 1300 m). In the south of the region, the Bectauata Mountains (absolute height 1214 m) and Ulytau Mountains (absolute height 1133 m) are the unique mountain ranges in the semi-desert zone.
In the Karaganda region there are about 2200 rivers and temporary watercourses with a total length of about 15 thousand km [70]. More than 1800 watercourses have a length of less than 10 km; and only 11 - more than 100 km.
All rivers are typical Kazakhstani lowland, snow or snow-and-ground nutrition, as the level of groundwater decreases, quickly melts and dries.
The largest watershed is the Karkaralinsky mountain junction [5, 6], from which the Nura, Sherubay Nura, Sarysu, Jamshy, Mointy, Tokrau, Taldy, Karkaralinka, Zharly rivers originate. Rivers belong to inland dryless basins. There are a large number of lakes (both fresh and saline), the largest of which is Lake Balkhash. Groundwater is fractured-formation; the degree of mineralization is insignificant.
The territory is characterized by mottled soil cover, which is due to the heterogeneity of soil formation conditions: relief, soil-forming rocks and the degree of moisture [71]. From the North to the South the gradual change of zonal types of soils is noted: ordinary black earth, southern black earth, dark-chestnut, chestnut, light brown. The power of the humus horizon ranges from 18 to 50 cm, and the content of humus is 4.5-6%. Mountain black earth and mountain chestnut soils are confined to the massifs of low mountains, which occupy insignificant areas, the humus content is 5-9%. Half of the region's territory is occupied by chestnut soils, a feature of which is the occurrence of dense rocks at a shallow depth (40-80 cm).
Among the zonal types of soils, the following main groups can be distinguished: normal, carbonate, salinity, salt marsh, underdeveloped (soil thickness no more than 40 cm) and underdeveloped (profile thickness less than 30 cm). Carbonate soils are confined to watershed territories composed of cover carbonate loams and heavy clays. Large areas are occupied by saline soils, which formed on saline rocks or under the influence of mineralized groundwater. Intra- zonal soils include meadow-steppe, malt, forest dark-colored and forest low developed.
The climate of the Central Kazakhstan is sharply continental [68-70]. The duration of sunshine, the main climatic factor, is 2300-2400 hours/year. Its maximum falls in July. The duration of the growing season in the Karaganda region reaches from 180 (on north and north-east) till 210 days (on south and south-west).
The average annual air temperature in the region increases from north to south from + 2 to + 6. The average temperature of the coldest month January is -16-17
°C. The absolute minimum temperature in some years reaches -42-45 °С. In
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spring, the average daily air temperature passes through point 0 °C on April, 7-8;
and after + 5 °C - on April, 21-23.
The warmest month is July with the average temperature +20-25 °С. The absolute maximum temperature in July is +37-40 °С. Summer is usually hot and dry [68], often accompanied by dry winds.
In autumn, the transition of average daily temperatures through 0 °С is observed on October, 22-25. Already at the end of September there are the first autumn frosts, in late October - early November frosts are established and snow cover forms. Autumn is more dry than summer.
The amplitude of fluctuations in average monthly temperatures reaches 34-39
°C; the absolute annual amplitude reaches 80-90 °C.
The average annual precipitation in the region is 300-400 mm in the north, north-east and 180-200 mm in the south - southwest. The largest precipitation occurs in the summer months (June-July) - 41-57 mm. The smallest amount of precipitation is usually in February - March and November-December. In general, during the winter, 35-37% of the annual amount of precipitation in the form of snow falls. Precipitation amounts fluctuate from one year to another within large limits. In wet years, up to 400-450 mm of precipitation falls; in dry years is not more than 90-170 mm. Climate dryness is also manifested in a long period without precipitation. In some years, precipitation does not occur for 50-60 days.
Period without precipitation is most often in August – September, rare in July.
Snow accumulation is gradual, reaching a maximum in the first decade of March.
Water reserves in the snow during this period are highest (40-60 mm); then they begin to decline due to evaporation and freezing. The average of the snow cover is 25-30 cm. In low-snow winters, the height of snow cover before snowmelt does not exceed 10 cm. In multi-snow winters, the maximum height of snow cover reaches 45-55 cm. Melting snow cover in spring begins at the end of March. Full melting of snow cover is noted on April, 5-10.
The vulnerability of the territory from the penetration of air masses of various origins into its borders favors intensive wind activity. The average annual wind speed is 3.5-5.5 meters/second. Days with silence are rare. In winter, the region is dominated by south-western winds with a repeatability of 20-25%. Northerly winds prevail. The highest wind speeds are usually observed in the second half of winter and spring, reaching 25-30 meters/second.
Thus, the sharply continental climate of the Karaganda region is characterized by temperature differences both in the seasons of the year and during the day, low rainfall, and an active wind regime.
Flora of the Central Kazakhstan has more than 1000 species of vascular plants from 80-82 families [70, 72-76].
In the Karaganda region it is observed the following types of vegetation:
steppe; forest, semi-desert, desert, shrub and swamp [70, 72].
The steppe type of vegetation includes communities dominated by micro- thermal turf cereals (Stipa lessingiana, S. sareptana, S. capillata, S. kirghizorum, S. pennata, S. orientalis, Festuca valesiaca, Agropyron, Silene parviflora, Poa
20
stepposa, P. bulbosa), with shrubs (Caragana frutex, C.balchaschensis, Spiraea trilobata, S. hypericifolia) and semi-shrubs from genus Artemisia (Artemisia gracilescens, A. sublessingiana, A. frigida, A. marschalliana, A.radicans, A.pontica, A.sericea). At elevated areas, petrophytic plants Patrinia intermedia, Valeriana tuberosa are included in the outcrops of granite. Communities of the steppe type of vegetation occupy the predominant areas on watershed, interstitial plains and plumes of hills and low mountains.
The desert type of vegetation includes communities formed by xerophilic and halo-xerophilic representatives of Chenopodiaceae family and some wormwood:
Atriplex cana, A. verucifera, Nanophyton erinaceum, Salsola arbusculiformis, Anabasis salsa, A. aphylla, Artemisia nitrosa, A. schrenkiana, A. pauciflora, A.
terrae-albae.
Forests occupy areas along the slopes of hills and mountains (Karkaraly, Buguli, Kent and others). In the rest of the region there are island deciduous forests. Among the most interesting forest formations are pine forests (Pinus sylvestris L.), confined to the outcrops of granites and which are the guardian of rare boreal flora elements. Island aspen-birch forests (Betula pendula, less often B.
kirghisorum, Populus tremula) are usually with the participation of Brachypodium pinnatum, Poa angustifolia, Ribes saxatilis, Lupinaster triphyllum, Artemisia sericea.
Significant areas of the forest are occupied by interstitial valleys, around springs, less often by the westerns of sandy massifs (Karaagash valey). Very rare are black-alder forests (Alnus glutinosa) in the Buyratau Mountains with an abundance of mesophilic elements (Ribes nigrum, Padus racemosa, Urtica dioica, Serratula coronata, Crataegus sanguinea, Rubus saxatile, Fragaria vesca, etc.).
Shrub thickets are diverse in ecology, which allows them to be divided into 3 classes:
i) thickets, which formed by xerophilic steppe shrubs Spiraea crenata, S.
hypericifolia, S. trilobata, Caragana frutex, C. balchaschensis, C. bongardiana;
ii) thickets, which formed by mesophilic species of forest shrubs: Rosa spinosissima, R. aciculata, Ceracus fructicosa, Cotoneaster melanocarpa. A special position is occupied by willows composed of Salix pentandra, S. caspica, S. bebbiana, S. triandra, S. viminalis;
iii) petrophytic thickets which formed by Juniperus sabina.
Swamp vegetation is extremely rare in the Karaganda region, one sphagnum swamp was found in the Karkarly Mountains.
Meadow vegetation is also confined to moistened territories. Meadows can be divided into:
i) real meadow with the dominance of Agropyron repens, Zerna inermis, Agrostis gigantea, Hordeum bogdanii, Puccinellia tenuissima, P. dolicholepis;
ii) marshy meadow with formations from Phragmites communis, Scolochloa festucacae, Carex melanostachya, C. acutiformis, C. songorica; of Leymus angustus, Poa angustifolia, Medicado falcata, Calamagrostis epigeios.
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3 WILD ESSENTIAL OIL PLANTS OF THE KARAGANDA REGION
3.1 The analysis of essential oil plants of the Karaganda region and their ranking
Essential oil plants are one of the largest groups of useful plants [2, 6, 11-21, 77-81]. Thus, the results of the analysis of the flora of Kazakhstan showed the growth on the territory of the republic of 1025 species of essential oilseeds belonging to 47 families and 240 genera [82]. The total number of species of essential oil plants is 17.9% of the total species composition of the flora of Kazakhstan; for the proportion of births, this figure is 22.5%, for the proportion of the family - 29.6% (Tab. 3).
Table 3. The taxonomic composition of essential oil plants of Kazakhstan
Family Number of genera Number of species
Total % from total number of
genera
Total % from total number of
species
1 2 3 4 5
Adiantaceae 1 0.4 1 0.09
Alliaceae 1 0.4 99 9.6
Apiaceae 75 31.3 222 21.7
Araceae 1 0.4 1 0.09
Aristolochiaceae 1 0.4 1 0.09
Aspidiaceae 1 0.4 7 0.7
Asteraceae 29 12.1 150 14.6
Betulaceae 2 0.8 15 1.5
Biebersteniaceae 1 0.4 2 0.2
Brassicaceae 13 5.4 41 4.0
Caprifoliaceae 2 0.8 9 0.9
Caryophyllaceae 2 0.8 28 2.7
Chenopodiaceae 2 0.8 4 0.4
Cupressaceae 1 0.4 7 0.7
Cyperaceae 1 0.4 7 0.7
Elaeagnaceae 1 0.4 2 0.2
Euphorbiaceae 2 0.8 8 0.8
Fabaceae 7 2.9 15 1.5
Gentiniaceae 1 0.4 1 0.09
Geraniaceae 1 0.4 6 0.6
Hypericaceae 1 0.4 7 0.7
Iridaceae 2 0.8 23 2.2
Lamiaceae 30 12.5 170 16.6
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1 2 3 4 5
Liliaceae 3 1.3 3 0.3
Malvaceae 2 0.8 4 0.4
Moraceae 3 1.3 3 0.3
Oleaceae 1 0.4 2 0.2
Papaveraceae 1 0.4 1 0.09
Pinaceae 4 1.7 6 0.6
Poaceae 3 1.3 4 0.4
Polygalaceae 1 0.4 2 0.2
Polygonaceae 2 0.8 8 0.8
Primulaceae 1 0.4 2 0.2
Ranunculaceae 8 3.3 14 1.4
Resedaceae 1 0.4 2 0.2
Rosaceae 15 6.3 45 4.4
Rubiaceae 2 0.8 15 1.5
Rutaceae 2 0.8 5 0.5
Salicaceae 2 0.8 54 5.3
Saxifragaceae 1 0.4 2 0.2
Scrophulariaceae 1 0.4 6 0.6
Solanaceae 2 0.8 3 0.3
Thymelaeaceae 1 0.4 2 0.2
Valerianaceae 2 0.8 1 0.09
Verbenaceae 1 0.4 2 0.2
Violaceae 1 0.4 2 0.2
Total: 47 240 100.0 1025 100.0
The leading families among essential oil plants are Apiaceae (31.3% of the total species number of essential oil plants), Lamiaceae (16.6% of the total species composition), Asteraceae (14.6% of the total species composition), Alliaceae (9.6% of the total species composition), Salicaceae (5.3% of the total species composition), Rosaceae (4.4% of the total species composition) and Brassicaceae (4.0% of the total species composition). The combined share of these 7 families is 85.8% of species composition, while the remaining 40 families account for 14.2%
of plant species, respectively.
In terms of the number of species, the Apiaceae family (222 species) comes in first place; on the second place is Lamiaceae family (170 species); on the third – Asteraceae family (150 species), on the forth – Alliaceae family (99 species), in fifth place - Salicaceae family (54 species).
In terms of the number of genera the leading position have tree families (Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae), and in forth position is Rosaceae family; on the fifth position is Brassicaceae family.
The distribution of essential oil plants in the territory of Kazakhstan does not occur evenly (Tab. 4). So, the smallest number of essential oil plants grows in the
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Western Kazakhstan (225 species), slightly more in the Northern Kazakhstan (241 species). The third place in the number of species is occupied by the Southern Kazakhstan (387 species), the fourth place is occupied by the Central Kazakhstan (275 species).
Table 4. Distribution of essential oil plants by region of Kazakhstan Region of
Kazakhstan
Number of families, piece
Number of genera, piece
Number of species, piece The Western
Kazakhstan
31 125 225
The Northern Kazakhstan
35 126 241
The Eastern Kazakhstan
41 198 461
The South-Eastern Kazakhstan
45 215 582
The Southern Kazakhstan
37 148 387
The Central Kazakhstan
35 130 275
The dominant positions are held by the South-Eastern Kazakhstan (582 species) and the Eastern Kazakhstan (461 species). The current distribution system of essential oil plants can be explained by the complexity of geographical and relief factors, which, in turn, leads to a variety of soil, ecological and microclimatic factors and, as a result, to a wider species diversity.
On the territory of the Western, Central and Northern Kazakhstan, the relief is smoothed; climatic conditions are more or less leveled throughout the territory, which impoverishes the species composition of flora, including essential oil plants.
It is noted the different degree of study of essential oil plants in Kazakhstan.
Thus, the most studied regions are the Southern and South-Eastern Kazakhstan [80-82], slightly less studied – the Eastern and the Central Kazakhstan, practically not studied are the Northern and the Western Kazakhstan.
The variety of natural reliefs of the Central Kazakhstan, significant amplitude of temperatures, precipitation and humidity determined the variety of vegetation.
As a result of the analysis of herbarium materials, literary data and own herbarium collections, it was determined that 1256 species of vascular plants belonging to 434 genera and 99 families grow in the Central Kazakhstan [72].
A significant part of these plant species is the practical importance. As presented in Table 4, 275 essential oil species from 130 genera and 35 families grow in the Central Kazakhstan. The largest number of species includes tree families: Asteraceae (66 species), Lamiaceae (60 species) and Apiaceae (44 species) (Tab. 5).
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Table 5. A list of essential oil plants of the Central Kazakhstan’s flora
Family Genus Species
1 2 3
Apiaceae (Umbellifera)
Eryngium E.planum
Chaerophyllum Ch.prescottii
Anthriscus A.aemula
Cachrys C.macrocarpa
Prangos P.ledebouri
Bupleurum B.aureum
Cnidium C.dubium
Silaum S.besseri
Carum C.carvi
Bunium B.setosum
Falcaria F.vulgaris
Trinia T.hispida, T.polyclada
Cicuta C.virosa
Sium S.sisaroides, S.latifolium, S.medium
Oenanthe O.aquatica
Seseli S.buchtormensis, S.eriocarpa, S.
eriocephalum, S.ledebourii, S.strictum, S.sesiliflorum, S.glabratum
Cenolophium C. fischeri
Conium C.maculatum
Peucedanum P.morisonii, P.lubimenkoanum Oedibasis O. apiculata
Palimbia P.turgaica, P.salsa
Ferula F.canescens, F.schair, F.soоngаrica, F.ferulаеoides, F.caspica, F.tatarica
Pastinaca P.graveolens
Heracleum H.sibiricum
Turgenia T.latifolia
Hymenolyma H.bupleuroides Scaligeria S.setacea
Araceae Acorus A.calamus
Asphodelaceae Eremurus E.altaicus Asteraceae
(Compositae)
Galatella G. villosa, G.tatarica, G. divaricata, G.punctata, G.angustissima
Conyza C.canadensis
Tripolium T.vulgare
Helichrysum H.arenarium
Inula I.helenium
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1 2 3
Pulicaria P.prostratа
Bidens B.tripartitа
Achillea A.nobilis, A.millefolium, A.setacea, A.micrantha, A.salicifolia,
A.cartilaginea Tripleurospermum T.inodorum Cancrinia C.discoidea
Tanacetum T.vulgare, T.scopulorum, T.santolina, T.millefolium, T.ulutavicum,
T.achilleifolium
Ajania A.fruticulosa
Cancriniella C.krascheninnikovii
Artemisia A.armeniaca, A.latifolia, A.laciniata, A.santolinifolia, A.pontica,
A.macrantha, A.obtusiloba,
A.proceraeformis, A.tournefortiana, A.glabella, A.rupestris, A.frigida, A.austriaca, A.sericea, A.absinthium, A.sieversiana, A.subchrisolepis, A.radicans, A.dracunculus, А.marschalliana, A.tomentella,
A.scoparia, A.juncea, A.scopaeformis, A.lercheana, A.terrae-albae,
A.semiarida, A.gracilescens, A.pauciflora, A.aralensis, A.camelorum, A.nitrosa,
A.schrenkiana, A.sublessingiana, A.serotina, A.albida, A.kasakorum, A.vulgaris
Arctium A.tomentosum
Betulaceae Betula B.pendula, B.pubescens, B.microphylla, B.kirghisorum
Alnus A.glutinosa
Biebersteniaceae Bieberstenia B.multifida Brassicaceae
(Cruciferae)
Cardamine C.impatiens
Isatis I.emarginata, I.costata, I.tinctoria
Herperis H.sibirica
Mattiola M.robusta, M.superba Brassica B.campestris, B.juncea
Sinaps S.arvensis
Eruca E.sativa
Thlaspi Th.arvense
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1 2 3
Camelina C.glabrata, C.microcarpa Capsella C.bursa-pastoris
Boraginaceae Arnebia A.decumbens
Cannabaceae Cannabis C.ruderalis
Humulus H.lupulus
Caryophyllaceae Herniaria H.polygama, H.glabra
Dianthus D. leptopetalum, D.campestris, D.rigidus
Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium C.hybridum, C.botris
Camphorosma C.soongorica, C. monspeliaca Cupressaceae Juniperus J.sabina
Cyperaceae Cyperus C.longus, C.fuscus Elaeagnaceae Elaeagnus E.oxycarpa
Fabaceae Ononis O.arvensis
Melilotus M.dentatus, M.suaveolens Gentianaceae Gentiana G.cruciata
Geraniaceae Geranium G.sibiricum, G.pratense, G.collinum, G.transversale
Hypericaceae Hypericum H.perforatum, H.scabrum, H.hirsutum Iridaceae Iris I.tenuifolia, I.songarica, I.halophila,
I.haematophylla, I.scariosa Lamiaceae
(Labiatae)
Scutellaria S.galericata, S.scordiifolia, S.dubia, S.grandiflora, S.krylovii, S.supina Schizonepeta S.annua
Siderites S.montana
Lophanthus L.schrenkii
Nepeta N.cataria, N.micrantha, N.pannonica, N.ucranica, N.pungens, N.micrantha
Glechoma G.hederacea
Dragocephalum D.nutans, D.thymiformis, D.peregrinum, D.ruyschiana Lallemantia L.royleana
Prunella P.vulgaris
Phlomoides Ph.tuberosa
Phlomis Ph. puberula, Ph.agraria Galeopsis G.ladanum, G.bifida
Lamium L.amplexicaule
Leonurus L.glaucescens
Lagochillus L.acutilobus, L.pungens Betonica B.officinalis
Stachys S.palustris
Salvia S.stepposa, S.deserta
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1 2 3
Ziziphora Z.clinopodioides, Z.bungeana Hyssopus H.ambiguus, H.macranthus Thymus T.marschallianus, T.stepposus,
T.lavrenkoanus, T.minussinesis,
T.crebrifolius, T.asiaticus, T.rasitatus, T.guberbinensis, T.roseus,
T.kirgisorum, T.kasakstanicus, T.eremita
Lycopus L.exaltatus, L.europaeus Mentha M.arvensis, M.longifolia,
M.micrantha, M.aquatica
Teucrium T.scordium
Eremostachys E.molucelloides Liliaceae Asparagus A.officinalis
Malvaceae Althaea H.officinalis
Lavatera L.thuringiaca
Papaveraceae Chelidonium C.majus
Pinaceae Pinus P.sylvestris
Poaceae (Graminea)
Elytrigia E.repens
Polygalaceae Polygala P.comosa
Polygonaceae Rheum Rh.nanum
Polygonum P.thymifolium, P.undulatum Ranunculaceae Thalictrum Th.foetidum
Pulsatilla P.multifida, P.patens Clematis C.orientalis
Ranunculus R.sceleratus
Rosaceae Filipendula F.ulmaria
Amygdalus A.nana
Spiraea S.trilobata, S.hypericifolia, S.crenata
Crataegus C.sangiunea
Rubus R.saxatilis, R. idaeus
Geum G.rivale, G.urbanicum
Agrimonia A.asiatica
Rosa R.laxa, R.canina
Hulthemia H.berberifolia
Cerasus C.fruticosa
Padus P.racemosa
Rubiaceae Gallium G. aparine, G.spurium, G.uliginosum, G.boreale, G,verum
Rutaceae Dictamnus D. angustifolius
Salicaceae Populus P.nigra, P.canescens, P.tremula
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1 2 3
Salix S.alba, S.bebbiana, S.rosmarinifolia, S.cinerea, S.caprea, S.viminalis, S.caspica, S.tenujulis
Glossulariaceae Ribes R.nigrum
Solanaceae Datura D.stramonium
Valerianaceae Patrinia P.intermedia
Ecological analysis of wild-growing essential oil plants of the Central Kazakhstan was carried out. So, among essential oil plants, the following ecological groups relative to humidification conditions [83, 84] were identified:
mesophytes, meso-xerophytes, xerophytes, xero-mesophytes and hydrophytes (Fig.
8). The largest number of species includes a group of xerophytes - 143 species. In second place are mesophytes. The lowest quantitative content is in the hydrophyte group (3 species). This distribution corresponds to the climatic conditions and vegetation of the Central Kazakhstan with an arid climate, the predominance of steppe and desert zones, in which forests occupy only 3% of the total territory.
1 – xerophytes, 2 – mesophytes, 3 – meso-xerophytes, 4 – xero-mesophytes, 5 – hydrophytes
Figure 8. Ratio of ecological groups among essential-oil plants of the Karaganda region flora
143
56 41
32 3
1 2 3 4 5
29
From vital forms we distinguished the following groups of plants: annual and biannual herbaceous plants, herbaceous perennial plants, semi-low shrubs, bushes, trees and lianas [85, 86]. The largest number of species was included in the group of herbaceous perennials - 162 species (Fig. 9).
1 – annual and biennial herbaceous plants, 2 – herbaceous perennial plants, 3 – semi-low shrubs, 4 – bushes, 5 – trees, 6 – lianas
Figure 9. Ranking of essential oil plants of the Central Kazakhstan’s flora by life forms
At the final stage, essential oil plants were ranked according to the degree of prevalence, commercial thickets and the possibility of practical use. There are four groups:
i) rare and endangered species, which are not subjects to collection (Thymus minussinensis, Th.guberlinensis, Tanacetum ulutavicum, T.scopulorum, Prunella vulgaris, Juniperus sabina, Pulsatilla patens, and others);
ii) species that are widespread, but do not form commercial thickets (Iris halophyla, Geranium collinum, Tripolium vulgare, Galatella divaricata, Melilotus suaveolens, Ferula tatarica, Tripleurospermum inodorum and others);
iii) widespread species forming thickets suitable for collecting raw materials in small volumes (Tanacetum vulgare, Achillea millefolium, Achillea nobilis, Hypericum perforatum, Artemisia austriaca, Nepeta cataria, Salvia stepposa, Ajania fruticulosa, Thymus crebrifolius, Ziziphora bungeana, Filipendula ulmaria);
iv) widespread species forming thickets suitable for industrial collection of raw materials (Thymus marschallianus, Ziziphora clinopodioides, Artemisia
30
terrae-albae, Hyssopus ambiguus, Thymus rasitatus, Patrinia intermedia and others).
For further investigation for assessment of resources of raw materials, essential oil plants belonging to the 3rd and 4th groups were selected.
3.2 Conspectus of flora of essential oil plants
Based on the obtained data on the species composition, a conspectus of essential oil plants of the Central Kazakhstan’s flora was compiled (Appendix A and B).
Family Apiaceae Lindl. (Umbelliferae Moris.)
Anthriscus aemula (Woron.) Schischk. Annual plant. Rare. It lives in shady gorges, under the canopy of pine forests and the banks of springs. It was marked only in the Karkaraly Mountains.
Bunium setosum (Schrenk) H. Wolff. Herbaceous perennial plant. It lives on the slopes of rocky hills. It was marked in the Altau Mountains, in the valley of the Sarysu river.
Bupleurum aureum Fisch. Herbaceous perennial plant. It grows in the low mountains of the Central Kazakhstan (Mountains Karkaraly, Kent, Shynghiztau). It lives in thickets of shrubs, along the edges of forests, along river banks and on forest glades. It is rare.
Cachrys macrocarpa Ledeb. Perennial plant. It grows on rocky soils, in deserted steppes, shrub thickets, slopes of low mountains. Found in the Ulytau Mountains, on upland Betpakdala.
Carum carvi L. Herbaceous biennial plant. It is found scattered on the territory of the Karkaraly Mountains. It lives in pines, along streams, in meadows, in shrub thickets.
Cenolophium fischeri (Spreng.) Koch. ex DC. Perennial herbaceous plant. It grows throughout the steppe part of the Central Kazakhstan. It lives in wet meadows, in river valleys, in swampy places, around springs, in willow thickets.
Chaerophyllum prescottii DC. Herbaceous perennial plant. It is widely distributed throughout the steppe part of the Central Kazakhstan. It lives in steppe communities, in raw meadows (around springs, in river valleys, on the edges of birch-aspen teal forests), in thickets of steppe shrubs, less often in chievniki and in salt-marsh meadows. It is plentiful.
Cicuta virosa L. Perennial herbaceous plant. It grows in marshy places, near lakes, rivers, along streams, often under the canopy of small-leaved forests. It grows in the mountains of Karkaraly and Kent.
Cnidium dubium (Schkuhr.) Thell. Annual plant. It is found throughout the territory of the Central Kazakhstan, abundantly in low mountains. It lives in raw meadows, at the edges of deciduous forests, in birch peaks, in glades among pine forests, less often in shrub thickets.
Conium maculatum L. Biennial plant. The weed species, it meets sporadically along roads, in gardens, in kitchen gardens.
31
Eryngium planum L. Herbaceous perennial plant. It grows in grain steppes, in steeped meadows, along the slopes of hills and interstitial depressions, along roads, on deposits and in river floodplains. It is widely distributed throughout the Central Kazakhstan.
Falcaria vulgaris Bernh. Biennial plant. It grows in the steppes, among shrub thickets, along the slopes of hills, in logs. It is revealed the only place of growth in the Karkaraly Mountains.
Ferula canescens Ledeb. Perennial plant. It grows on crushed stone and heavy clay soils, along the slopes of hills, on flat areas. It is found in the Betpakdala upland.
Ferula caspica M. Bieb. Perennial plant. It grows in the steppe and semi- desert zone of the Central Kazakhstan, on salinity and, clay-salinity soils, along the plains and gentle slopes of hills. It grows in the Betpakdala upland, in Ulytau Mountains.
Ferula ferulаеoides (Steud.) Korov. Perennial plant. It grows in dry steppe communities, less often in the desert zone, along the slopes of gentle hills, on clay- rubble outcrops. It is identified populations in the Betpakdala upland, Northern Balkhash.
Ferula schair Borszcz. Perennial plant. It grows in the desert zone of the Central Kazakhstan, settling in flat places, on gentle hills, in shrub thickets. It forms dense thickets. Habitats - Betpakdala upland.
Ferula soоngаrica Pall. ex Spreng. Perennial plant. It is widely distributed in most part of the Central Kazakhstan, covering the slopes of hills and interstitial depressions, valleys of rivers, streams and temporary watercourses, shrub thickets, edges of island birch-aspen forests.
Ferula tatarica Fisch. Perennial plant. It grows on brackish soils in the steppe and desert parts of the Central Kazakhstan, often in shrub thickets, along the gentle slopes of hills, in river valleys, withstands salinization. It is marked in the Betpakdala upland, the Ulytau mountains, steppe zone.
Heracleum sibiricum L. Perennial plant. It grows in raw meadows, along the banks of rivers and streams, in bush thickets, in swampy places. It is found in the low mountains of the Central Kazakhstan.
Hymenolyma bupleuroides (Schrenk.) Korov. Perennial plant. It grows in wormwood-type steppes, less often in salty meadows, in the vicinity of low mountains, in flat areas. It occurs scattered in the Betpakdala upland, around Zhezkazgan city.
Seseli buchtormensis (Fisch.) DC. Perennial plant, petrophyte. It grows along the slopes of granite hills, in the cracks of rocks, in a strip of dry and deserted steppes. It is found in the low mountains of the southern and southwestern parts of the Central Kazakhstanа.
Seseli eriocarpa Schrenk. Perennial plant. It grows on stony slopes of hills of upland, in dry steppes. It is found scattered throughout the territory of the Central Kazakhstan.
32
Oedibasis apiculata (Kar.et Kir.) K.-Pol. Perennial plant. It grows on crushed plains, along the slopes of low mountains. It is found in the Northern Balkhash region.
Oenanthe aquatica (L.) Poir. Perennial plant. It lives on the banks of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, in swampy places. It is found in the Karkaraly Mountains, in the valley of the rivers Nura and Sherubay Nura.
Palimbia salsa (L.) Besser. Perennial plant. It is found throughout the territory of the Central Kazakhstan in a strip of variegated-feathered steppes, south on carbonate clay soils, along steppe and meadow declines, around springs.
Palimbia turgaica Lipsky. Perennial plant. It is found throughout the territory of the Central Kazakhstan in a strip of variegated-feathered steppes, south on carbonate clay soils, along steppe and meadow declines, around springs.
Pastinaca graveolens M. Bieb. Perennial plant. It grows in feathered, feathered-different steppes, among communities with the participation of Artemisia terrae-albae. It is often in the steppe part of the Central Kazakhstan, the Ulytau Mountains.
Peucedanum morisonii Besser. Perennial plant. The species is widespread in the steppe and low-hill parts of the Central Kazakhstan. It grows in steppe communities, along the slopes of hills, in depressions, among shrubby thickets, along the edges of pine and small-leaved forests, in steppe meadows.
P.lubimenkoanum Kotov. (P. alsaticum L.). Perennial plant. It is common in most parts of the Central Kazakhstan; grows in dry steppes, is abundant in logs, steppe depressions, slopes of hills, in salty meadows, at the edges of island forests.
Prangos ledebouri Herrnst. et Heyn. Herbaceous perennial plant. It lives in meadow thickets, under the canopy of forests, on the slopes of low mountains. It is found scattered throughout the territory of the Central Kazakhstan, mainly in the semi-desert part.
Scaligeria setacea (Schrenk) Korov. Perennial plant. It grows along the grassy slopes of low mountains, in logs, along shrub thickets, dry river beds. It is marked in the Ortau, Kyzyltau, Aktau Mountains.
Seseli eriocephalum (Pall. ex Spreng.) Schischk. Perennial plant. Habitation is confined to the desert zone of the Central Kazakhstan. It grows on clay soil, salt marshes, along the shores of salt lakes, less often on takyrs.
Seseli ledebourii G. Don. Perennial plant. It is widespread throughout the Central Kazakhstan, often being a dominant or component in petrophytic communities. It grows in shallow seedlings along crushed or rocky slopes, on flat steppe areas, less often on sandy or saline soils.
Seseli glabratum Willd. ex Schult. Perennial plant. It grows on the rocky slopes of hills, in the low mountains of the steppe and desert parts of the Central Kazakhstan.
Seseli strictum Ledeb. Perennial plant. It grows in saltyr meadows, in shrubby thickets of the steppe and desert zones of the Central Kazakhstan.
